The Epic Poem, Beowulf - Vengeance and Revenge in Beowulf Essay

Retribution and Revenge in Beowulf  The most seasoned of the incredible extensive sonnets written in English and maybe the solitary overcomer of a classification of Anglo-Saxon sagas, Beowulf, was composed by an obscure Christian writer at a date that is just estimated.â Even in this way, it is a momentous account story wherein the artist revitalizes the courageous language, style, and estimations of Germanic oral poetry.â He interlaces various subjects including great and fiendishness, youth and mature age, agnosticism and Christianity and the chivalrous perfect code, into his vital account and various deviations and scenes; which were all critical to his crowd at the time.â Vengeance, some portion of the gallant code, was respected diversely by the two particular religions.â Christianity instructs to excuse the individuals who trespass against us, while in the agnostic world, retribution is commonplace and not considered a malevolence act.â In Beowulf, the antiquated German saying vengeance doesn't long rem ain unrevenged is carefully clung to and confirms that vengeance is a piece of agnostic custom. Two human connections were profoundly noteworthy to the Germanic society.â The most significant, the connection between the warrior and his master depended on a typical trust and respect.â The warrior promises faithfulness to his ruler and serves and guards him and thus the ruler deals with the warrior and prizes him richly for his valour.â The second human relationship was between kinsmen.â As Baker and Ogilvy recommend, a unique type of devotion was engaged with the blood fight. (P.107)â If one of his family had been killed, a man had a moral commitment either to murder the slayer or to correct the installment of wergild in compensation.â The cost was resolved upon the position or economic wellbeing of the person in question... ... see was tit for tat, if a man slaughters your family you precise revenge.â in actuality, the Christian view was increasingly similar to as Mohandas Gandhi said tit for tat just winds up making the entire world blind.â Christians trusted God would certainty make the wisest decision and would prefer to love instead of lashing out then have it bring about more blood and murder.â Throughout the sonnet, the writer endeavors to oblige these two arrangements of values.â Though he is Christian, he can't nullify the principal agnostic estimations of the account story. Works Cited and Consulted: Abrams, M.H., ed.â Beowulf: The Norton Anthology of English Literature.â New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc., 2001.â Cook, Donald C. what's more, J.D.A. Ogilvy.â Reading Beowulf.â Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983. Duke, James W.â Thinking About Beowulf.â Stanford: Stanford University Press: 1994.

Case Study Mcdonalds

It works more than 35000 cafés in excess of 100 nations on six landmasses. 5 It has an unmatched worldwide framework and skills in eatery tasks, land, retailing, promoting and diversifying. McDonald’s site says that it is an innovator in the territory of social obligation and is focused on ensuring the earth for people in the future. 7 Strong and wide correspondence direct in the market. (deng, 2009) 8 Play zones for kids. 9 Large objective markets. 10 Recession safe (Birchall, 2008) 11 In September 2003 fruitful support up of new items was propelled with MTV’s promoting effort including the new slogan, â€Å"I’m Lovin’it†. (Jennifer, 2004) WEAKNESSES 1 McDonald’s has not accomplished its development desires in recent years. Slender Product lines. (deng, 2009) 3 McDonald’s brand relationship as a lousy nourishment. (deng, 2009) 4 Few alternative for good dieting 5 High representative turnover rates. (macy, 2012) 6 McDonald’s ad ditionally have some terrible consequences for condition. (ltd. , 2006) 7 McDonald’s additionally faces numerous kinds of lawful activities on numerous issues. Openings 1 Product pressing for McDonalds now includes QR codes for clients to get nourishing data. Mcnamara, 2013) 2 Opportunity to expand advertise, the shoppers who care about medical problem. (deng, 2009) 3 Slightly changing business sector brand picture of McDonalds. (deng, 2009) 4 In 2009, McDonald’s propelled its weighty Angus burger in all U. S. An areas. 5 Introduction of trans without fat French fries in all cafés in the U. S. An and Canada. 6 Introduction of McCafe. 7 Testing advertising foods grown from the ground as upbeat supper at certain outlets. 8 McDonald’s establishments abroad turned into a most loved objective of individuals and gatherings communicating antiglobalization assessments. Passage into new and exceptionally famous item classes. Dangers 1 Public assault about stoutness issue. (deng, 2009) 2 Changing taste of customers. (deng, 2009) 3 Unable to maintain benefactors as unique control sandwiches offered by rivals Burger King and Wendy’s. 4 Promotional plans like McDonalds game discovered connivance with 51 individuals charged in a piece of trick winning $24 million by taking winning McDonald’s tickets. 5 McDonalds demonstrated a postponed impact than different eateries administrators in exchanging over to zero trans-fat cooking oil. In 2001 McDonald’s was sued for harming strict assessments by vegan bunches for not uncovering its flavors in French fries as it a dded hamburger concentrate to vegetable oil and demonstrating it as veg in menu. 7 Consumers started recording claims that eating at McDonald’s had made them over weight. 8 Competition from burger rulers and Wendy’s. (Thomadsen, 2007) MARKET SEGMENTATION TARGET MARKET| BABY BOOMERS| GENERATION X| GENERATION Y| GENERATION Z| DEMOGRAPHICS| 45-65+| 35-44| 19-34| 0-18| GEOGRAPHICS| URBAN| PSYCOGRAPHICS| More worried about low cholesterol food| More worried about low fat food| More worried about physical wellness food products| Generally eats taste situated food products| BEHAVIOURAL| Mostly worried about great nature of food products| Requires access with snappy and new food service| Generally make up for lost time food without anyone else by coming to out| Check out with companions and family| ISSUE ANALYSIS In 2004,Morgan Spurlock’s narrative film Super-Size Me gave very analysis to McDonald’s quick â€Å"nutrition†, in which he shows how he increases fat and decimate his wellbeing by eating McDonald’s. 2 In 1998 McDonald’s began â€Å"Made for you† System however it was not effective. There was a decline in development of deals in stores. 3 In 1999 preceding the execution of â€Å"made for you â€Å"scheme ,McDonald’s wanted to give around 190 million in money related help to its franchisees ,ho wever the real expense of actualizing the framework ran a lot higher than the partnership had assessed. In 2001, 51 individuals were charged contriving to fix McDonald’s game advancements throughout quite a long while, uncovering that $24 million of dominating McDonald’s match tickets had been taken as a piece of trick. 5 In 2004, McDonald’s was sued for removing a modest quantity meat included to the vegetable oil utilized for cooking French fries. 6 Many individuals despite everything gripe that the food served by McDonald’s isn't hot to eat. Suggestions PRODUCT :- 1 McDonald’s ought to give hot food to eat in light of the fact that numerous clients protest that their food isn't so hot to eat else it will influence deals. McDonalds ought to bring some new more advantageous items for all ages since terrible impact on wellbeing is one of the shortcomings of McDonald’s and bringing some more advantageous food will assist with conquering this picture. 3 McDonald’s ought to give some free snacks since it will assist it with rivaling its rivals and increment deals. 4 McDonalds should make their items in fat free oil since it will have great impact on wellbeing. 5 McDonald’s ought to likewise give some provincial food on the grounds that along these lines some co untry individuals will likewise begin tolerating its items. Propelling of new singed and bone in treats in Chicago. Cost:- 1 The cost of items ought to be reasonable in such a case that they won't be moderate to little pay bunch then its deal will be influenced and it will likewise offer the chance to contenders to expand their deals. 2 The costs of items ought to be consistently checked in order to rival rivalry since individuals will purchase those items which they can get in low cost. Spot:- 1 McDonald’s should open new establishments in little urban areas additionally . It will assist them with expanding its business and increment development. McDonald’s should build the quantity of its establishments in all nations so as to extend its business. Advancement:- 1 McDonald’s ought to give some limit on more items bought in light of the fact that along these lines individuals will purchase more. Since certain individuals will begin buying more things on the off chance that they can get markdown. 2 McDonald’s ought to give home conveyance administration on the grounds that occasionally a few people can’t go to store so as to buy them. It will expand deals. 3 McDonald’s ought to give online deal on the grounds that along these lines individuals can submit their requests on the web. McDonald’s is taking a shot at new plates of mixed greens and wraps . (wong, 2013) 5 McDonald, s will test the new singed and bone in treats in Chicago. (wong, 2013) 6 Success of relentless wings in Atlanta. (wong, 2013) BEST RECOMMENDATIONS PRODUCT:- McDonald’s ought to give some more advantageous food to all ages since wellbeing heftiness is the serious issue with McDonald’s . Along these lines they can get great picture with respect to wellbeing. Value:- Prices of items ought to be routinely checked so as to rival rivalry since individuals will least expensive item. Spot:- McDonald’s should open new little establishments at little urban areas additionally in light of the fact that it will assist him with expanding its business and increment development rates. Advancement:- McDonald’s ought to give home conveyance administration in light of the fact that occasionally individuals can’t go to store so as to buy item. Book reference Bibliography Birchall, J. (2008). McDonalds asserts inexpensive food deals warding off log jam. Monetary occasions. deng, t. (2009, may). McDonalds new procedure on changing mentalities and correspondence. Universal diary of showcasing considers, 37-42. Jennifer, R. (2004). web based marking :the instance of McDonalds. ritish food diary. ltd. , n. m. (2006). ICCR sponsered intermediary goals on hereditarily changed life forms gain acknowledgment among investors at wendys McDonalds . money related wire. macy, a. (2012). financing a remodel:a instance of McDonalds Franchisee. diary of case inquire about in bu siness and financial aspects. Mcnamara, B. (2013). McDonalds give the individuals what they need. Nourishment business diary. Thomadsen, r. (2007). item positiong and competion:the job of area in the cheap food industry. Promoting science. wong, V. (2013). will McDonalds powerful wings fly? Business frail.

Buy, Borrow, Bypass Novels about the Voynich Manuscript

Buy, Borrow, Bypass Novels about the Voynich Manuscript I only learned about the Voynich Manuscript a few months ago but I have been obsessed ever since. Sometimes described as the most mysterious book in the world, the Voynich Manuscript could be a 15th century coded book containing all sorts of important secrets about the world. It could also be a complex hoax perpetrated by a rare book dealer. Since its discovery in the early 20th century, scholars and the curious have studied and speculated about this odd, beautiful book. It resembles an herbal text in some places, an alchemy text in others, and a religious text in still others.  A century of scholarship hasnt really resolved any of these questions and nobody has ever deciphered it. There are many novels  that use the Voynich Manuscript as a major plot device. However, before you start in on those novels, youll need to pick up your very own reproduction of the book. Yale University Press published a gorgeous, full-color facsimile of the manuscript last year. Deborah Harkness (!) wrote the introduction to the book and it  includes essays and commentary from noted scholars in a variety of fields. If youre not ready to invest in this version, you can also view the entire manuscript for free online. Once youve got your bearings, or at least have a sense of the manuscripts content, youll be ready for the novels on this list. The Book of Blood and Shadow by  Robin Wasserman is the girl-power, YA-Da Vinici Code  you need in your life. Nora, the slightly awkward but whip smart teen girl at the center of this novel, manages to do the impossible: she    decodes the Voynich Manuscript. Once she does, she unlocks the secrets of an ancient religious order. Her race to avert catastrophe, and clear her boyfriend of a murder charge, takes her from a quaint New England college town to Pragues ancient religious sites. This book has a delicious blend of religion and myth, several languages (Latin, Greek, French, and Czech), secret codes and riddles, secret societies, and brilliant teenagers who know more than they ever should. Verdict: Buy this book if youre ready for a YA-spin on Dan Browns work (and how could you not be?). Datura, or a Delusion We All See by Leena Krohn, translated from the Finnish by    J. Robert Tupasela and Anna Volmari.  I may have identified a little too much with the unnamed narrator of this slim volume. She works as an editor, writer, and fixer for a magazine that features the worlds odd, surreal, and implausible phenomenon. The book follows her slow descent into what?  Not madness, exactly, but something like it. As she starts ingesting Datura seeds and writing an article about the Voynich Manuscript her grip on reality becomes more tenuous. Along the way, she crosses paths with all sorts of odd characters, including a man obsessed with coincidences and another with silent sound. She also begins to question the nature of reality, history, and life itself. Verdict: Borrow  this Kafkaesque  book on the mysteries we all inhabit without always realizing it. Codex by Lev Grossman was inspired by the Voynich Manyscript but doesnt actually discuss it in any detail. I  had really high hopes for Codex when I started it  after all, Grossman wrote the beloved  Magicians Trilogy but was disappointed. The narrator is a sort of smarmy, 25-year old investment banker about to move  London. During a  two week vacation leading up to  the move, he takes on the work of cataloging the private library of a wealthy family. This leads him to a mysterious book that reveals secrets about the familys lineage. Solving the manuscripts mystery requires him to work with a young graduate student in medieval literature, obsessively play an underground video game, and cope with an existential crisis. Although I was generally interested in the plot, this novel just didnt land for me. The narrator comments on the appearance  and sexual availability of every woman he meets, no matter how minor the interaction. It got grating after a while. Verdict: Bypass this dated book that was inspired by, but isnt really about, the Voynich Manuscript.

Essay about Sikh Marriage - 2564 Words

Sikh Marriage Introduction Expect among some westernised subgroups in the larger Indian cities social mixing between the sexes is restricted, even in co-educational schools. Also, the joint or extended family system is still the Indian norm. It is in this context, which can only be referred to in passing in this piece of coursework, that Sikh marriage must be understood. Marriage, traditionally, is not a private matter between two persons. Through the couple two families become closely connected and into one family comes a stranger, the wife. She has therefore to be compatible not only with her husband but with his parents, brothers, their wives and his unmarried sisters. Ideally the marriage†¦show more content†¦The emphasis upon family life as that which God has ordained is such that few Sikhs wish to remain single. The family assists in finding a partner. Suitability should have as its criteria virtuous qualities, temperament and age. Then, if they have any place, societal status and economic po sition. A final factor will be caste consideration. A Jat is likely to marry a Jat, an Arora an Arora, a Ramgarhia a Ramgarhia, but there are many exceptions. It is most important that a Sikh marries a Sikh. The true life of discipleship to the teaching of the Gurus can most completely be carried out in the householder (grihasthi) state and it is important that it is expressed in a united family. Mixed marriages are not successful in normal experience, whether the tensions be caused by conflict between town a village, wealth and poverty, laxity and piety. Kinship has a negative influence. Sikhs should marry someone whose family (got) as denoted by surname is the same at the distance of the four grandparents. Describe a Sikh wedding ceremony The wedding will normally take place at the brides village and may be celebrated on the flat rooftop, in a courtyard, garden or in the gurdwara - anywhere so long as the Guru Granth Sahib is present. The grooms party, traditionally comprised onlyShow MoreRelatedBuddhism, Hinduism, And Islam1626 Words   |  7 Pagespractices tend to be monotheistic due to the influence of Islam, while many of the practices when it comes to worshiping and lifestyle are influenced by Hinduism. Scripture for most religions is extremely important, and that is no exception for the Sikhs. For Sikhs, the primary scripture that they use is called the Adi Granth, which hold the hymns of the first five Gurus, the ninth Guru, material from the four bards, eleven Bharts and fifteen Bhagats of the Sant, Sufi and Bhakti traditions. The second categoryRead MoreSikhism and Hinduism Comparison1506 Words   |  7 Pagescan either become a nun or priestesses. In Sikhism, women do not attain a certain status within the Sikh culture because to them women are equal to men in the eyes of their God (Pinkham, 1967). In this essay I will argue that by having such opposing views towards women in the Hinduism and Sikhism culture, it gives a clear understanding of the way in which women are portrayed among Hindu’s and Sikhs; as these two dominant religions have very different conceptions of women as well as their level ofRead MoreArgument Essay1131 Words   |  5 PagesMarriage: Prep-Course for Sikh Faith Sikh marriage is not merely a physical and legal relationship but is a holy union between two souls where physically they appear as two individual bodies but in fact are united as one. However, with each new generation more South Asian children adopt modernized beliefs and choose a different style of getting married, as opposed to common marriage at the temple. The course would be a valuable resource to prepare couples for marriage and orient them towardRead MoreEssay on Discrimination of Sikhs in India528 Words   |  3 Pagesdecades without end, members of the Sikh faith have suffered countless injustices at the hands of their fellow countrymen. The Sikh religion was started in India during the fifteenth century by the first guru Sri Guru Nanak Dev Ji. The Sikh were a peace loving people who spread messages of freedom and equality. They even went as far as too risk their lives to help out other religions. Despite all this in the past century the decedents of the very people the Sikhs sacrificed and continue to sacrificeRead More Sikh Religion Essay821 Words   |  4 Pagesabout a Sikh girl who is being raised in England. This girl is confronted with a lot of issues pertaining to her culture and religion and how these both clash with the culture of England. She wants to do things that her fellow colleagues are doing, but is not allowed due to her parent’s strict respect of their religion. In the following pages, I will first explain the significance of the man on the wall in the picture. Then I will move on to cultural issues and their significance with the marriage scenesRead MoreThe Importance of the Sikh Turban and Muslim Hijab1123 Words   |  4 PagesThe Importance of the Sikh Turban and Muslim Hijab We live in a world where conflicts between religions have existed since the beginning of time. There are many issues worldwide based on religious differences, such as the conflict between Israel and Iran which is based on Judaism and Islam or the issue of India and Pakistan both possessing nuclear weapons over the conflict between Hinduism and Islam. These issues exist in all religions, in all regions of the world. People argue constantly aboutRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem Complaint Of God By Iqbal4132 Words   |  17 PagesChapter 7 (57-66): Imam Din takes Lenny along to his trip to his village, Pir Pindo, which about 40 miles from Lahore. When Lenny arrives to Pir Pindo she meets Ranna, Dost Mohammad, Chidda, Khatija and Parveen. She also meets Jagjeet Singh, one of the Sikh granthi (priests) who visit Pir Pindo, while she is there. Chapter 8 (67-78): Lenny and Imam Din return from their visit to Pir Pindo. There is a dinner party being held at the Sethi household. Rosy Peter’s parents, Mr. Singh, their father, and theirRead MoreGuru Nanak, the Apostle of Humanity 1469--1539 Essay1044 Words   |  5 Pageswas tearing off the social set up and brotherhood. The womanhood was brutally subjugated. Health, wealth and honour, all had become defenseless. Such was the predicament at the advent of Guru Nanak, the first Supreme preceptor of the Sikh Religion. He was born in the house of a revenue official, Mehta Kalu, in the year 1469 at Talwandi, in District Sheikhupura (now in Pakistan). Nearly first thirty years of his life Guru Nanak minutely studied and experienced himselfRead MoreHistory and Experience of the Sikh Diaspora in the United States3245 Words   |  13 PagesHistory and Experience of the Sikh Diaspora in the United States Sikh migrants began arriving in the United States more than one hundred years ago, and now have reached numbers close to half a million. Like most other immigrant communities in the United States, Sikhs have faced problems that are both specific to their community and that are also shared by other ethnic communities making their way in a new land. Despite their recent numbers and century long history in the United States, manyRead MoreCan Sikhism continue to exist without the Guru Granth Sahib?1300 Words   |  6 PagesEvie Nichols 9y3 Can Sikhism continue to exist without the Guru Granth Sahib? The Guru Granth Sahib is the sovereign active living Guru of the Sikhs. It is a voluminous text, with 1430 pages, compiled and composed during the period of Sikh gurus, from 1469 to 1708. A collection of 5,894 hymns and 1430 pages, the Guru Granth Sahib describes the qualities of God and why you should meditate on God’s name. The hymns are arranged into 31 ragas (musical groupings). Each copy of the Guru Granth Sahib

Dell Supply Chain Management - 3057 Words

Research Publication Date: 12 November 2010 ID Number: G00208603 Case Study for Supply Chain Leaders: Dell s Transformative Journey Through Supply Chain Segmentation Matthew Davis Faced with ever-changing customer needs, product commoditization, unique global requirements and new, low-cost competitors, Dell embarked on a three-year journey to segment its supply chain response capabilities. The company designed its supply chains based on a mix of cost optimization, delivery speed and product choices that customers value, while aligning internally across all functions to execute against this vision. Key Findings Dell s market and business strategies changed, requiring the company to move from a single supply chain to a customer†¦show more content†¦But demand for commoditized products, changes in customer channel preferences, emerging market growth, component cost declines, a more capable supply base and globalization have challenged the singular supply chain. In this case study, Gartner examines Dell s period of transformative change as it segmented customer requirements to create a portfolio of supply chain capabilities that provided multiple offerings focused on cost efficiency, speed to customers, choice of features and personalization and/or services. We follow the journey from the perspective of key leaders within Dell s supply chain transformation: Annette Clayton, VP of global operations and supply chain; Jennifer Loveland, disruptive strategy senior manager; Perry Noakes, director of global business excellence and lean; and Bruce Raven, global supply chain optimization seni or manager. CASE STUDY Introduction Dell responded to changes in the market by determining how different segments of customers derive value from its products and services. The company s analytics showed customer demand had become quite complex. The B2B market demands predictability, speed, customization, services and precision delivery. Consumers want multiple channel options, the ability to personalize for niche products, low-price options and devices that deliver content. This complexity will only increase as content and virtualization begin to drive the market. To addressShow MoreRelatedSupply Chain Management Of Dell1202 Words   |  5 Pages Introduction Supply chain management is essential process for every business organization to make a good relationship among suppliers who provide resources to business organizations according to their requirements. Here in this report we will discuss about production strategy and contracts for supply chain for Dell. Dell is a well-known company and serving its customers with its services and products worldwide. It will be better to discuss about supply chain management of this company. BesidesRead MoreDell Supply Chain Management5373 Words   |  22 PagesTable of Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Literature Review 1 3. Supply Chain Management 6 4. Components of Supply Chain Management 7 5. Business Process Integration 8 6. Dell Computers 12 7. Dell’s value chain 13 8. Dell’s Supply Chain Management 14 9. Significance and Advantages of supply chain management 17 10. Cost effective and consumer friendly SCM of Dell 20 11. Conclusion and recommendation 21 12. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦..22 1. Introduction CompaniesRead More Dell Computer Supply Chain Management Essay7134 Words   |  29 PagesDell Computer Supply Chain Management Table of Contents Executive Summarynbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; 3 Focus of the Proposalnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Read MoreA Case Study of Dell Supply Chain Management4601 Words   |  19 Pagesstudy of Dell supply chain management Liu Xingrui 920514-7482 tml10xlu@student.hig.se Xiao Ziye 920801-6619 tml10zxo@student.hig.se Peng Yunyi 930204-9128 tml10ypg@student.hig.se Liu Siqi 921026-9628 tml10slu@student.hig.se Date Summary Dell’s supply chain is typical paragon among the computer manufacturing industry. The advantage of supply chain lead to a rather strong marketing performance for dell than it ever had been. This paper takes an overview of Dell’s supply chain and strategiesRead MoreIntroduction to Supply Chain Management System: Dell Computer Corporation1451 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction to Supply Chain Management (SCM) System Supply chain management (SCM) is the combination of activities which help a company to improve the methods to make a product or service and deliver it to customers. (Larson, 2004) SCM encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing, procurement, conversion, and logistics management activities. 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Discrimination Racism Free Essays

Many conferences have been organized especially by the United Nations to discuss the issue of discrimination in different perspectives. Discrimination has been a setback in many nations especially in the West, like America where there is an influx of people from different parts of the world. In this paper, discrimination will be elaborated. We will write a custom essay sample on Discrimination: Racism or any similar topic only for you Order Now The focus will be on racism as a type of discrimination. Scientist hold the opinion that races came into being as a result of family groups living together over a period of time. The different races of human beings can therefore live together. The impact of racism will be assessed and possible solutions recommended. Introduction Discrimination is described as that act of people treating others based on their differences regardless of their individual merits. This is practised in religion, race, disability, gender, ethnicity, age, height and employment amongst others. This judgement could be positive or negative. Positive discrimination is the discrimination based on merit (also called differentiating) while the negative discrimination is based on factors like race and religion. Negative discrimination is however the common form of discrimination in spite of the fact that this is illegal in many Western societies just like many other societies. Despite being illegal, discrimination is still rampant in different forms in many parts of the world. The most common form of discrimination is racial discrimination, also referred to as racism. This is destructive. It is the act of basing treatment on the racial origin of an individual (Randal, 2008). Racism is influenced by social, political, historical and economic factors. It has so many definitions due to its various forms. It involves social values, institutional practices and individual attitudes. It changes with response to social change. The basis of racism is the belief that some individuals are superior due to their ethnicity, race or nationality. It is a social phenomenon and not scientific. Some of the racist behaviors include xenophobia, racial vilification, ridicule and physical assault. Racism could be practised intentionally (direct discrimination) or unintentionally making some groups to be disadvantaged (indirect racial discrimination). Racism is enhanced either individually or institutionally. Institutionally, it involves systems in life such as education, employment, housing and media aimed at perpetuating and maintaining power and the well being of a group at the expense of another. It is a more subtle form of discrimination since it involves respected forces in the society. Individual racism involves treating people differently on the basis of their race. It is the deliberate denial of power to a person or a group of persons. The above two forms of racism refer to race as the determining factor in human capacities and traits. There is no clear cut distinction between racial and ethnic discrimination and this is still a debate among anthropologists. Institutional racism is also referred to as structural, systemic or state discrimination. It is socially or politically structured. As indicated early, the perpetrators are corporations, governments, organizations and educational institutions which are influential in the lives of individuals. It is the systematic policies and the organizational practices that disadvantage certain races or ethnic groups. From the statistics given in 2005 on the US, it is evident that the Whites are highly regarded while the African Americans are looked down upon by the society. Their household incomes differ greatly ($50,984, $33,627, $35,967 and $30,858 for Whites, Native Americans, Latinos and African Americans respectively). Their poverty rates follow suit with that of the African Americans being thrice that of the Whites. Unlike the Whites, the other groups attend underfunded schools. Their living environments are below standards compounded by poorly paying jobs and high unemployment rates. The employment in the labor market is disproportional in favor of the Whites. Le Duff (2000) describes a situation in a slaughterhouse where a White boss just sits in his glass office only to come out when the day is almost over to double the workload for the workers. The Black workers are overworked if only to meet the company’s target of pork production. It is important to note that this Smithfield Packing Company is the largest plant in the world in pork production. The workers, who are Blacks however do not feel any positive impact of the company as they are overworked and mistreated by their white boss. It is common for the boss to unleash his anger on the workers and they seem to have very little power to take any action against this. The immigrants are another category of those who are socially discriminated. They are the lowest in the society’s stratification and are the ones to do the low forms of jobs considered ‘dirty work’. This is social racism. The wages they get from these jobs are very low and minimal or no benefits at all. Since the 1996 welfare reform was passed by the Congress, all the legal immigrants have had to do without federal programs like Medicaid and Supplemental Security Income. Sonneman (1992) describes a community of immigrants who have to deal with racial discrimination from the natives. These immigrants have poor jobs as pickers. They do not have adequate food and have to work extra hard in their jobs to earn a living. The natives overcharge them for basic commodities. An example is that of the picker who was charged five dollars instead of three dollars for the groceries he bought at the store. A gallon of milk is also charged at 30 cents higher than in town. They are however so powerless that they can do nothing about it. These pickers flock in this remote area and not in the town which is only a mile and a half away because of the high cost of living in the town. Berube A. and Berube F. (1997), give an example of their family who lived in trailer coaches as dictated by their economical capability. In South Africa, racism was rampant just like in many other African countries under colonial rule. From 1948 to 1994, the apartheid system denied the non-whites their basic rights. The whites who were the minority were allowed to keep certain areas for themselves without permission thus locking out the blacks. Schools taught the subjects meant for Africans in Afrikaans. Other than the protests by many countries and the United Nations, the South Africans protested against these systems leading to many deaths as the police fought them back. However, in 1994, this was brought to an end with Nelson Mandela becoming the president, allowing equal rights for both the blacks and the whites. The racial stereotypes who propagate racism by the belief that other races are better than others are said to propagate individual racism (Hanshem, 2007). Stigma is closely related to discrimination. In the interview by Rodgers, it is revealed that those women who came from well-off families found it more difficult going to welfare unlike their counterparts from poorer backgrounds who had children to look after with no child support. According to sociology, stigma is the act of a society discrediting an individual. It is the disapproval of an individual’s character or what they believe in that goes against cultural norms. Examples include illegitimacy, mental or physical disabilities, nationality affiliations, illnesses, religious affiliations and ethnicity. Stigma could be based on external deformations such as scars and other physical manifestations like leprosy and obesity. The other form is based on traits such as drug addiction. Lastly is tribal stigma that involve ethnicity, nationality or religion. There are some factors that indicate racism. Among them are refusing to work with a specific group of people. Others would spread racist propaganda or racist comments. People who physically assault or harass others are considered racists. Discriminatory policies or procedures are an indicator of racism. The effects of racism cannot be ignored. Healthcare among the racially discriminated is poor or non-existent. For instance, the 1999 Centre on Budget Priorities study showed that 46% of the non-citizen immigrant children could not access health insurance unlike the natives’ children. Racism lowers an individual’s self esteem. When someone disregards another because of the skin color or religion, their self-esteem is lowered. It could be ignored if it happens at once, but if it persists, it negatively influences the confidence of an individual. Children skip schools because of such effects. Learning thus becomes difficult. In an attempt to suppress the factors that make them discriminated against, they try to change their religion, skin colour, hair color and even stop trusting people. Others resort to learning foreign languages and their respective accents to cover up their ethnicities so as to identify with the race that is considered superior. In some cases, surgery has been undertaken to conform to the societal demands. One problem that has been cited is lack of education on racism. An educated individual is aware that there is need for different people if learning is to take place. Then, if one is to experience the positive impact of education, appreciating other people around will be of importance. Otherwise, discriminating people could lead to lack of expertise knowledge in some specific areas. It is thus important to sensitize the community on the importance of each and every person. Education will go a long way to even help those who are being educated to appreciate who they are. On the same note, schools and other learning institutions should provide an all-inclusive environment which would accommodate people of different ethnic affiliations (Einfeld, 1997). Then, they should meet their specific needs based on their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Religious solutions could be sought where necessary. In Islam for instance, Qua’ran teaches against racism. If these people with religious affiliations are allowed to practise their religion freely, then this could curb racism. Thus, all religions should be respected and given the chance to conduct their practices. The responsible authorities are endowed with the duty of coming up with laws that prohibits racism. There have been conventions and conferences where these laws are discussed and drafted. The United Nations has been on the forefront in implementing these rules. It is not adequate enough to only discuss these issues. They should come up with solutions that could be implemented. Conclusion No one can dare deny the effect that racism has had in various states. it is only wise to face the problem head on and find the right solutions. a solution must be found to curb this problem once and for all. it calls for the efforts by every member of the society to assume their respective roles and do what is expected of them. How to cite Discrimination: Racism, Papers

The commercialization of festivals has eroded their real significance free essay sample

A festival is an occasion for rejoicing and celebration. It conjures up scenes of gaiety and merrymaking. It is an occasion for family rejoicing and community celebrations. Festivals break the monotony of life, bring peace and joy to the masses and above all promote social interaction and harmony. All nations have their religious and colorful festivals. Being a multi-religious, multilingual and multi-racial country, Indians celebrate a number of festivals all through the year. However, Indian festival are known to attract the world due to their harmony variety, color and excitement. But now we see their significance has been eroded by their commercialization. Now these have become just important occasions, to promote personal and commercial purpose. We know, Indian festivals are as varied as the people themselves. All communities, all religions and all nations have their festivals. But nowhere do they form such an integral part of life as they were earlier used to be. These festivals can broadly be divided into three categories—national or political, religious and seasonal. Most Indian festivals usually have their origin either in religion or in the myths and legends of popular faiths. Some are connected with the memory of venerable men and events and are, therefore, commemorative in nature. They are intended to keep alive the memory of those days and personalities and inspire people to emulate their examples. But now, real purpose have been abandoned. In the name of those men and occasions, celebrating the event have become a means to attract funds, provided in the name of those functions. National festivals, like the Republic Day, the Independence Day, Gandhi Jayanti and others are supposed to be celebrated with great patriotic fevour. These have been declared as national holidays and are celebrated in all parts of the country and in the state capitals with a lot of pomp and show. The organizer of these functions never bother to follow the principles of those great men, i. e. , of simplicism and non-violence, they rather fight with their coordinators to be ahead in the lime light. The capital, New Delhi is the seat of national celebration on all occasions. It witnesses one of the most majestic parades on the Republic Day. Apart from the Armed Forces, school children from across the country also participate in the parade. The normal practice is that the states exhibit their talents depicting the states resources or recent achievement and the best one achieve rewards. But now, it is an open fact that achievement has nothing to do with the reward. One, who has great source of authority, places can get the place in the line. Moreover, the glory of those reward doesn’t last long. The winners steal the media’s show for the time being. After a time, they are lost in commercial gloom as the commercializing agents make hay while the sun shines. The same is the case in religious festivals. Diwali is celebrated all over India. On this day, the people worship Lakshmi, the goodess of wealth. On this day, everybody illuminates his house with rows of lights. Every town or village appears gorgeous on this night of mirth and festivity. Lights of all descriptions from the ordinary clay lamp to the costliest chandelier are artistically displayed with splendid effect but the ordinary clay lamp to the costliest chandelier are artistically displayed with splendid effect but to show personal supremacy. In the larger cities, gas and electric lights of various colours and degrees of luminosity make the night as bright as midday without bothering that they are, more or less, misusing the necessary resources. Vocal and instrumental music, stage performances and cinema shows keep people awake till late hours. Fireworks are displayed on house-tops and the frequent whizzing of sky-rockets and explosive bombs continue to be heard from sunset to midnight. ICSE Guess Papers Package The divine glory of the festival seems to have been lost behind all this show. For young merry-makers, the Diwali night is the ideal night. They spend lavishly on crackers and have sumptuous feasts. They never prefer to do some efforts to make the day memorable for those who have not pocket –power to celebrate it. Sweets are consumed in huge quantities but not for sacred purposes. Juniors gift them to seniors to make them happy so that, in turn, they would get their favor. Many desecrations like these have crept into the celebration of this festival. The season of festivals is at its peak each year during the months of October and November. There may be poor souls lost in hectic routine having no idea of festive season. There are ump teem ways to remind one that the festival months have arrived. To begin with there would be numerous tents on roadside with bhajans blaring from the loudspeakers and temporary stalls serving piping hot food on payment. Then there are innumerable Dandiya with DJs that go on for nine days. It’s time for brisk business for all. Shops, big and small display ‘For Sale’ or other schemes to attract customers. Most of the Indian festivals which have come down to us from antiquity are connected with the course of nature and the fruits of the soil. Many legends from Hindu mythology have been associated with festivals. The relationships are the essence of celebrations. But does this spirit exist in today’s fast paced competitive, nuclear families?

Adhd as a Social Construct Essay Example

Adhd as a Social Construct Essay This research paper will discuss what ADHD is and why it is that there are those who think it was invented instead of discovered. It will also investigate the reasons why social construct theorists believe that the diagnosis of ADHD does more harm than good and actually diverts from the real issues that children face in their development in this day and age. Also explored will be the case against the social construct theory and why some who argue that the social construct theory is viable are ignoring a very real and possibly debilitating mental disorder. Despite the fact that ADHD is constantly in the news for one reason or another, there is no consensus on what it actually is and as more time goes by and more information is collected the more confusing the topic. Since ADHD has no definitive way of being diagnosed then the question remains what it is that is being treated and why medication is being prescribed, sometimes for life, for something that cannot be proven to fundamentally exist? Is this diagnosis simply as a result of the changing times or the fact that as a society will are all expected to conform to a standard set of behavior or else deemed lacking in some way? We will write a custom essay sample on Adhd as a Social Construct specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Adhd as a Social Construct specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Adhd as a Social Construct specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder or ADHD is a common psychiatric condition that affects both children and adults. It is more likely to be diagnosed in childhood and in more boys than girls are said to have this disorder. There is debate as to whether children can outgrow their symptoms or whether it continues into adulthood or whether it is just a behavioral problem that will just go away as more adults than every are being diagnosed. Symptoms of ADHD include but are not limited to: hyperactivity, lack of concentration, day dreaming, impulsiveness and restlessness. In ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) the individual is usually described as a daydreamer and in AHD (attention Hyperactive Disorder) the individual is deemed restless or high spirited. Treatment for this disorder range from increased exercise and a diet that does not include carbohydrates and sugar to medicinal intervention in the form of methylphenidates and amphetamines such as Ritalin or Adderall. There is no one test for ADHD – a diagnosis is reached upon by the doctor after having had parent and teacher reports and from interaction with the child or adult. One of the main reasons that the diagnosis of ADHD remains so controversial in many medical circles is the fact that there is no one definitive way in which to test for it. Most of the time the conclusion that an individual (usually a child) has ADHD is as a result of parent reporting and/or teacher intervention. Some would argue that this makes the whole process subjective instead of objective and therefore does more harm than good especially since once a child is put on medication it is recommended by many doctors that he/she continues to take it into adulthood as the symptoms will not decrease or stop over time. Considering the fact that the pharmaceutical industry has a lot to gain from recommending the prolonged usage of drugs for ADHD and there are no studies showing the effects of the long term use of the methylphenidates and amphetamines commonly used, it is only natural that there should be queries into whether the disease actually exists or if it is possible that it could be something else all together. Although there are many who say that the conclusion that hyperactivity is relative and opinion may thus vary from one medical practitioner to another there are those that say there is evidence that it is present in some who have ADHD and the proof is in the brain structure and function and in the DNA composition. This combined with environment leads to what is known as ADHD because it is a multi faceted disease and to try and pin it down to just one cause would be futile and would result in tunnel vision as far as treatment goes. There is evidence to show that severe hyperactivity in children leads to serious developmental stagnation and misdiagnosis or non diagnosis of behavioral disorders such as ADHD leads to educational and occupational failure, inability to have nurturing relationships and stagnation in adulthood. In fact, is estimated that most addicts like gambling, alcohol and drug have some form of ADHD. Experts who agree with this school of thought are adamant that to claim that ADD is a social construct would only hurt those who suffer from it and delay or deny them the treatment that they so desperately need. It must be noted however, that the proponents of ADHD as a social construct are not opposed to getting to the bottom of the reason why an individual might be hyperactive, distracted and unable to concentrate. What they are against is the label itself which they believe will lead individuals into a mentality that they are somehow defective and need to be on medication for most of their lives. What they do advocate for is a strengthening of the family unit and a more child centered way of life. Social construct theorists conclude that in modern western culture factors uch as loss of extended family support, family life being increasingly busy, a cultural system that emphasizes individuality and competition and increased stress from the school systems all contribute to what can otherwise be termed as ADHD symptoms. They conclude that it is for this reason that ADHD was not prevalent until the Industrial Age when people’s lifestyles drastically changed – there was no longer enough play space and increased schooling pressures became increasingly problematic for children who were boredom intolerant. Children put in this unnatural environment coped by either tuning out (ADD) or becoming restless (ADHD). Social construct theorists believe therefore that it is not a medical intervention that is needed but a cultural one. An example of where a cultural intervention is needed is in some western school systems whereby there is intolerance for what can be termed as â€Å"active children†. Though social construct theorists do agree that on some level there could be biological factors what may be the reason that a child or adult is inattentive what they argue is that the school system and society has failed to integrate them and has chosen instead to set them aside and label them as disordered. Different methods of learning instead of the rote memorizing of facts where all individuals are supposed to learn the same thing at the same time and at the same pace will result in an environment where those with different learning styles are made to feel welcome instead of feeling like failures because they do not fit in. In this way, social construct theorists and their opponents are in agreement when they say that a multi pronged approach should be used in tackling and handling behavioral problems. Those against the social construct theory have long been advocates of more open classrooms and more flexibility as pertains to school settings and educational purposes in order to help those who have been diagnosed with ADHD cope with their symptoms. Along with medication, they also stress the importance of getting exercise and having a balanced diet so as not to exacerbate the effects of the disorder. Medication is only part of the solution, not all of it. one point of contention between those who support the social construct theory and those who oppose it is the over and under diagnosis of the disease. Social construct theorists claim that this is because there is no proven way that one can test for the disease and therefore the diagnosis will tend to fluctuate depending on race, social standing, gender, cultural differences and geographical location the theorists claim that if ADHD were are real mental disease the discrepancies would not be so high and so varied. In studies done all around the world, what is known to western countries, especially the United States as ADHD behavior is seen everywhere. What differs is the interpretation of an individual’s action. In some countries and cultures active children are considered the norm or even encouraged. Even in societies where obedience is expected of all youngsters, there are less likely to attribute it to a mental disorder and more likely to claim it is growing pains, simply a stage that will pass. Even the methods used to diagnose ADHD are different – in America the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th Edition) while in Europe the ICD-10 (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision). This results in 3-4 times fewer diagnoses in Europe than in the United States. Part of the conflict between those who say that ADHD is a real mental condition and those who say that it is a social construct is that there is really no general consensus on what ADHD really is or how to diagnose it. What both sides do agree on is that behavioral problems left untreated will often end up hurting not only the individual affected but all those around him/her and later on, society in general. Social construct theorists in general tend to be against the label of ADHD with the claim that it is one that is stuck with an individual for life and may thus hinder his/her development with pills serving as crutches. They also say that the diagnosis tends to be prevalent in cultures where passivity and order are highly valued. Those who disagree saying that leaving the problem untreated will put those suffering from the disorder at unnecessary risk and stagnate their development. Part of the conflict seems to be what one group thinks the cause should be and/or the treatment required if any. It is important to note that social construct theorists are usually not the same as those who say that behavioral problems are just a result of bad parenting and one should not spare the rod in rectifying the problem. They are not saying that behavioral problems do not exist, just that the cause, treatment and effect should be different.. Whether or not ADHD is a social construct is a debate that is not likely to end any time soon and a resolution is not anywhere in sight. Social construct theorists will always argue that until ADHD is shown to be a true disorder instead of collection of traits then the label should not be used as it hinders more than it helps. On the other hand, those who say that ADHD is a true disorder are more likely to claim that not giving the disorder a label is very detrimental to the individual concerned. There are those who say that ADHD being a real psychiatric disorder being a social construct are not mutually exclusive. This means that thought they do be lieve that ADHD exists they do not think it is as prevalent as the pharmaceutical companies and the media make it out to be. Any behavioral problem that cannot be pinned down and diagnosed is bound to have its opponents and ADHD is one of them. Even those who do claim that it is a valid medical diagnosis and not just a label used to describe behaviors that fall outside the prescribed societal norm do admit that it is multi faceted and multi layered and no two individuals have the exact same symptoms. Social construct theorists on the other hand cannot dismiss the fact that behavioral disorders must be identified and dealt with even though they may not agree with the treatment prescribed or the reasons given for the behavior. With research still being done and studies being carried out it will be a while before any reasonable and scientifically viable conclusion can be reached that will validate either side. As with any mental condition that is difficult to diagnose, it is impossible to have all interested parties come to the same conclusion as it is highly individual and a form of treatment that works for one may not work for another. The very fact that the discussion is taking place and that the debate goes on could be of benefit to all interested and concerned parties. References Barkley, R. A. , Cook, E. H. Jr, Diamond, A. , et al. (2002) International Consensus Statement on ADHD. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5, 89 –111. [CrossRef][Medline] Breggin, P. (2002) The Ritalin Fact Book. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. Meltzer, H. , Gatward, R. , Goodman, R. , et al (2000) Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in Great Britain. London: Stationery Office. Moll, G. , Hause, S. , Ruther, E. et al (2001) Early methylphenidate administration to young rats causes a persistent reduction in the density of striatal dopamine transporters. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 11, 15 –24. [CrossRef][Medline] Prout, A. James, A. (1997) Constructing and Reconstructing Childhood: Contemporary Issues in the Sociological Study of Childhood. London: Falmer Press. Sayal, K. , Taylor, E. , Beecham, J. , et al (2002) Pathways to care in children at risk of attention-deficit deficit hyperactivity disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 43 –48. [Abstract/Free Full Text] Schachar, R. Tannock, R. (2002) Syndromes of hyperactivity and attention deficit. In Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (4th edn) (eds M. Rutter E. Taylor), pp. 399 –418. Oxford: Blackwell. Sproson, E. J. , Chantrey, J. , Hollis, C. , et al (2001) Effect of repeated methylphenidate administration on presynaptic dopamine and behavior in young adult rats. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 15, 67 –75. [Abstract/Free Full Text] Taylor, E. Sandberg, S. , Thorley, G. , et al (1991) The Epidemiology of Childhood Hyperactivity. Maudsley Monograph No. 33. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Taylor, E. , Chadwick, O. , Heptinstall, E. , et al (1996) Hyperactivity and conduct problems as risk factors for adolescent development. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1213 –1226. [CrossRef][Medline] Timimi, S. (2002) Pathological Child Psychiatry and the Medicalization of Childhood. Hove: Brunner-Routledge.

The Making of Malcolm essays

The Making of Malcolm essays Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X Malcolm X, one of the most complex and enigmatic African-American leaders ever, was born Malcolm Little on May 19, 1925 and died in 1965; Malcolms life has increasingly acquired a mythic stature (p.3). Malcolm X was one of the Civil Rights Movements most loved and also revered leaders and M. Dyson looks to explore some of the myth and fact about such an influential man. M. Dyson starts by historically and politically giving background information about the making of Malcolm into one of the most controversial, yet influential figures in the Civil Rights Movement. M. Dyson gives the reader warning, Malcolm's complexity resists neat categories of analysis and rigid conclusions about his meaning (p.14) Dyson starts the book giving a critical reading of the books on the Malcolm X. M. Dyson covers different books about Malcolm and does so by placing them into 4 different categories: c.) Malcolm X as a vehicle for psychohistorical d.) Malcolm X as a revolutionary figure M. Dyson aims to critique the different interpretations of Malcolm X and assess the different reasons for the designation of these roles. M. Dyson looks into the use of Malcolm X in forms of re-creation and reproduction of the 1960s cultural nationalism. M. Dyson explains how they kept from turning Malcolm X into a sort of iconic figure on both the cultural nationalism and multiculturalism aspects. M. Dyson challenges black bourgeois nationalists downplay of Malcolm Xs legacy, even as M. Dyson states that these transgressors that the door of the church remain open. M. Dyson critiques and challenges the use of Malcolm Xs persona in black popular culture. Although he makes an interesting argument about the way in which Malcolm X is portrayed and used to deflect ...

DOES THE PRACTISE OF HRM GIVE ORGANISATIONS A COMPETITIVE EDGE Essay

DOES THE PRACTISE OF HRM GIVE ORGANISATIONS A COMPETITIVE EDGE - Essay Example Business organizations has been apt in declaring their commitment in treating employees as valued assets and a source of competitive advantage yet empirically "organisational reality appears 'hard' with an emphasis on the quantitative, calculative, and strategic aspects of managing a head count" (Gill 1999). Empirical evidences on the effectiveness of human resource management as a source of competitive advantage have been widely documented. During 1995, the study of Huselid conducted in almost 1000 US players in various industries concluded that "the magnitude of the returns for investments in high performance work is substantial." Furthermore, "a one percent standard deviation increase in such practices is associated with 7.05% decrease in labour turnover, and on a per employee basis US$27, 044 more in sales, and US$18,641 and US$3,814 more in market value and profits, respectively" (Huselid 1995). This study has been one of the earliest and most extensive works linking HRM to actual business performance. The findings has been strongly supportive on the view that HRM provides companies with competitive edge because HR practices increased employees' trust, job satisfaction, and commitment while eliminating work intensification and reducing stress. In the United Kingdom, wide array of case studies have also been documented which strongly links HRM to organisational performance. In 1997, Patterson et al released the results of their survey utilizing 67 manufacturing industries. This has been published by the Institute of Personnel Development which is currently known as CIPD and highly quoted for its enlightening insights. The study has put forward the "importance of HRM as a driver of, and contributor to, improved performance" (Patterson et al 1997). It is also interesting to note that this study asserts that "HRM had a greater impact on productivity and profits than of other factors including strategy, research and development, and quality" (Patterson et al 19997). Going further, Patterson et al, uncovers that while 8% in variations from profitability is explained by R&D, 17% is explained by HRM practices. This is highly significant compared to the 2% and 1% garnered by the strategy and quality, respectively. The study of Guest et al in 2000 also stresses the importance of human resource management practices in organisational performance. This research links specific human resource practices like job security, recruitment and selection, and training and development with performance outcomes including financial performance, quality, and productivity. It has been uncovered that 70% of the chief executives interviewed for the study asserts that their business strategy relied a lot on people as a source of competitive advantage (Guest et al 2000). On the other hand, less than half of them "felt that 'people issues' are more important than financial and marketing issues" (Guest et al 2000). This particular research opens an important field for further queries. Even though it concluded that HRM is positively correlated with performance, it has also been observed that only a small proportion of the companies considered do practice more than

Risk Study Report (occupational health and safety) Essay

Risk Study Report (occupational health and safety) - Essay Example eport focuses on this important subject matter, which is covering the riskiness of Hot Air Balloon Flight and presenting measures in order to minimize the riskiness. During vacations, people like to enjoy almost every other available activity, Hot Air Balloon Flight has also become a point of consideration for many travelers and tourist. It can be more popular only when it gets more and more safer. The chances of error and number of accidents must be as low as possible in order to rank oneself as a reputable Hot Air Balloon Company. This report has been divided into four major parts, each of which covers individual aspects of Hot Air Balloon Flights. Nowadays, there are many sports and activities which are becoming center of attraction of adventurers and travelers. Some of the most common activities include surfing, skydiving, paragliding, traveling in Hot Air Balloon etc. All of these activities have some risks associated with them. Legal jurisdictions have made it compulsory to assess the risk. There are various strategies which need to be implemented in order to avoid any uncertainty or unpleasant situation. Number of events of Hot Air Balloon take place every where all year round. The activity of Hot Air Balloon which will be discussed in this paper primarily is â€Å"Dubai Hot Air Balloon Flight†. Further information for this events is being mentioned in the subsequent section of this paper. Hot Air Balloon is one of the most popular adventure activity. Modern balloon technology and training systems assure that it is unlikely for people to get wounded in a Hot Air Balloon accident. Despite of that, since Hot Air Ballooning is an adventure activity and all types of adventure activity do carry some level of risk. Dubai Hot Air Balloon Flight is an event which takes place in Dubai all year long. People from all over the world come to Dubai to enjoy the glitz and glamour of this city. Along with this, they also prefer to enjoy the Hot Air Balloon early morning

Solid Waste Disposal

Solid Waste Disposal INTRODUCTION Human development and health is greatly influenced by the environment in which they live in (Centre for Disease Control, 2009). Solid waste constitutes a major source of environmental hazard. Environmental hazards accounts for an estimated 25 % of the total burden of disease worldwide and nearly 35 % of ill-health in sub Saharan Africa is caused by environmental hazards (WHO, 2009). This dissertation is a report of a qualitative study done to find out the perceptions of Warri South Local Authority staff on solid waste and its disposal in Warri municipal. According to Beede and Bloom (2003), the perception and attitude of people towards waste can affect the way it is managed; hence it is essential to gain an insight and knowledge about the perception of Warri South Local Authority staff on solid waste and its disposal in Warri since they play a major role in the planning and running of Warri municipal. If they do not perceive waste disposal in Warri as a priority, little or no attenti on will be given to it. This first chapter starts by offering a background for the study. It will highlight the problem of municipal solid waste and depict its importance and public health consequences. The purpose of study, methodology adopted and potential benefits of this study are also discussed briefly. Overview of other chapters will also be discussed. BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY The World Health Organization (WHO) constitution of 1964, defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (Naidoo and Williams, 2000). A clean environment is one of the prerequisite of a good health because there is a close relationship between the environment and peoples health. A high quality environment allow people to live longer in good and positive health (ref) Solid waste constitutes a major source of environmental hazard if not properly managed. The activities of humans and animals produce waste and the way these wastes are handled, stored, collected and disposed of, can pose risks to the environment and to public health (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993; Baritone, 1995; Ofomata, 2001, Da Zhu et al, 2008). Municipal solid waste (MSW) refers to non-air and non-sewage emissions created within and disposed of by a municipality this includes household garbage, commercial refuse, construction and demolition debris, dead animals, and abandoned vehicles (Cointreau, 1982; Walling et al., 2004). There are several classification of solid waste based on their origin, characteristics and risk potentials (Ofomata and Eze, 2001). They are broadly classified by their characteristic as biodegradable and non-biodegradable. This classification is based on the quality of solid waste generated from different sources. According to Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2007), biodegradable waste consists of all organic wastes that decay naturally as the result of the action of micro organisms into useful or less polluting products. Non-biodegradable wastes consist of wastes that do not breakdown naturally and must be recycled, burnt or buried; a common example is the plastic shopping bag (Williams, 2005). In the beginning of civilization, disposal of waste was not a significant problem because population was small and land available for assimilation of waste was abundant (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993; Ahmed and Ali, 2004). Solid waste generated by the traditional society were little and simple, mostly containing organic matter while those generated by todays technological societies are large and complex. Problems of waste disposal started from the time people began to assemble in clans, villages, and communities and the build up of waste became a consequence of life (Tchobanoglous et al, 1993) The rapid developments of cities across the globe have led to an increase in the amount of waste produced from human activities; this has posed a challenge of disposal to both developed and less developing nations (WHO, 2009). According to United Nations Development Programme survey report of one hundred and fifty one mayors of different cities from around the world, inadequate solid waste disposal is the second most pressing problem facing city residents after unemployment (Da Zhu et al, 2008). This problem is further compounded as many nations continue to urbanize rapidly and to increase in population, making it difficult for most municipal authorities to provide most of the basic services (Ogbonna et al, 2002, Ayotamuno and Gobo, 2004). According to United Nation Statistic Division (UNSD, 2009) Nigeria has a population of about 140 million with an annual urban growth of 3.8%. It is a developing country that has persistent solid waste management problems in addition to her growing population (Walling et al, 2004). An average Nigerian generates about 0.49 kg of solid waste per day with households and commercial centres contributing almost 90% of total urban waste burden (Uguwh, 2009) Developing countries spend as much as 20 to 40% of their municipal revenues on waste management (Thomas-Hope 1998, Schà ¼beler 1996, Bartone 2000); yet they are often unable to solve the problem as one to two-thirds of the solid waste generated is not collected, while the uncollected waste is dumped on the land in a more or less uncontrolled manner (Onwurah et al, 2003, Da Zhu et al, 2008). Even the collected waste is often disposed in an uncontrolled dump site or burnt, contributing to water and air pollution (Da Zhu et al, 2008). Indiscriminate disposal and dumping of waste has become a common practice in Nigerian cities. Municipal solid waste heaps are found in several parts of major Nigerian cities like Warri, often blocking roads, alleys, and pavements (Ayotamuno and Gobo, 2004). Most of the waste dumps are located close to residential areas, Markets, farms, roadsides, and creeks; with many human activities close to the dump sites, there is an increase threat to public health (Ogbonna et al, 2002). Generally, the uncollected solid wastes are left to decay, and this produces foul odour thereby constituting a source of environmental nuisance (Ofomata and Eze, 2001). Uncontrolled burning, another common method of disposing waste in Nigeria and this have often led to fire outbreaks. Smoke arising from such fires can reduce visibility, and have been known to cause fatal vehicular accidents (Ofomata and Eze, 2001). Warri is a major oil city located in Delta state Nigeria, with a population of over a million. Its population is rapidly growing due to urbanization and oil exploration activities; the total waste load for Warri is about 66 721 tonnes per year (Ajao and Anurigwo , 2002). Municipal Solid Waste and Public Health Implication The management of municipal solid waste is becoming a major public health and environmental concern in urban areas of many developing countries (Harris, 2004). The improper management of solid wastes represents a source of environmental pollution, and poses risks to human health (Puri et al., 2008). Municipal waste in most cities contain human excreta, animal excreta, hazardous chemical pollutants and sharps which can facilitate the spread of diseases and injury particularly among children playing near waste dumpsites and employees in waste management sector (Da Zhu et al, 2008). Poor disposal of solid waste is associated with spread of vector borne-diseases like malaria and dengue fever (McKenzie et al., 2004; Puri et al., 2008). Infrequently disposed refuse tend to become breeding sites for mosquitoes, as pools of rain water collect in discarded cans, bottles and car tires (Ofomata and Eze, 2001) Mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of malaria-a life threatening disease through their bites (Human Protection Agency, 2009). Malaria accounts for an estimated 300-500 million cases globally; which is an endemic disease in sub-Saharan Africa. It accounts for about 1.5-2.5 million deaths yearly, most of them among children under five years (WHO, 2009). Decomposing organic materials can become breeding sites for pests, rats, flies and vermin that enhance the likelihood of disease transmission like diarrhoea and Lassa fever (Simon, 2008). Lassa fever is a haemorrhagic fever common in four African countries: Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. It is transmitted to humans from contacts with food or household items contaminated with rodent excreta (HPA, 2009; WHO, 2009). Uncollected waste left to accumulate or dumped in the streets can block water drains and channels which can cause flooding, posing significant environmental and public health risks (Whiteman et al, 2008). Ground or surface water pollution can occur when rain water combines with decomposing waste and seep through permeable soil, finally contaminating surface and ground water with both lethal materials and pathogenic organisms (Ofomata and Eze, 2001); this is extremely dangerous as ground water is the main source of drinking water for most cities in the developing world (Oluwasola, 2007). Incineration of municipal solid waste contributes to air pollution by the release of noxious materials into the air, which may cause ill-health (Ofomata and Eze, 2001). Uncontrolled incineration of solid waste can also cause fire outbreaks in nearby homes and farms. Other impacts of poor Municipal Solid Waste disposal include disgusting odour, unsightliness and general degradation of the environment ( Dolk, 2002). PURPOSE OF THE RESEARH Many studies have been done on waste disposal and management in Nigeria but none has been done to explore the views of Warri south local authority staff. The aim of this research is to explore the views of the staff of Warri south local authority on municipal solid waste disposal system, and its public health implication in Warri. RESEARCH QUESTION The research question for this study is What are the perceptions of Warri South Local Authority senior staff on municipal solid waste disposal in Warri? This will encompass the issues and problems of solid waste management in the municipal. WHY PERCEPTION? According to Collins school dictionary (2000) perception is your understanding of something or someone. Perception refers to the image or feelings formed in ones mind about some perceived phenomenon or object (Okot- Uma et al, 2002). Perceptions vary from person to person, as they perceive different things about the same situation. Perception is influenced by perceivers value, beliefs, social economic circumstance and expectations (Okot- Uma et al, 2002). Peoples perception of issue influence the way they act, behave or respond to them. Decision makers working in any environment base their decision on the environment as they see it and not as it is. The action resulting from their decision on the other hand is played out in the real environment (ref). If the general perception of people who play a major role in the running of warri municipal on solid waste disposal in Warri is that it is of little importance, little or no attention will be given to it. METHODOLOGY. The study will adopt a qualitative research methodology because it aims to gain an insight and knowledge about peoples perception on waste. Qualitative research concentrates on peoples attitudes, experiences, beliefs and their perceptions of a situation (Polit et al., 2001). It aims to generate an understanding of what is going on in everyday setting and it can also be used to describe a point of view, illustrate meaning, sensitize readers or try to understand phenomena (Green and Britten, 1998). Hence qualitative research is the most appropriate approach that should be used for this study. BENEFIT OF THE RESEARCH The study will be beneficial, as it will provide an insight on how the staff in charge of daily planning of services in Warri south view waste disposal in the community. It may also help Warri south local authority in modifying and improving waste disposal strategies and systems. I intend to publish the findings and recommendations of this study in a local paper. It will also contribute to the existing body of knowledge of waste management in Nigeria. SYNOPSIS OF CHAPTERS This chapter has presented an overview of municipal solid waste disposal problems and its public health implications as an introduction to the study. Chapter two will presents a review of current significant literature on waste disposal in Nigeria and other developing countries. A brief note on how the literature search was carried out will also be stated. Following the literature review chapter, will be the methodology of the research reported in chapter three; where different research methodologies and the justification for the method chosen are discussed. The research method, which includes; sampling method, data collection, data management/analysis and ethical issues also form sections of the methodology chapter. The findings of the study and discussion are reported in chapters four and five respectively. At the end of the dissertation, the recommendations based on the research findings are stated in chapter six.

Introduction to Marketing Revision Notes

Chapter 1: Marketing Principles and Society Definitions: Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM): The management process of anticipating, identifying and satisfying customer requirements profitably (CIM, 2001) The American Marketing Association: The activity, set of institutions and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. (AMA, 2007) These definitions stress the importance of considering the customer requirements and to delivering value. The difference between a customer and a consumer, is that the customer physically buys the product, and the consumer actually uses (or eats) it. The Marketing Process Marketing comprises 4 phases of activity, which is a component in the process of creating value for the customer: 1. The design phase. Companies identify customer and consumer needs, and design the product offering around their needs to create value for the customer. 2. The development phase. Companies develop products, services, and ideas, which meet those needs and deliver the intended value. 3. The delivery phase. Companies distribute those products, services and ideas to their customers and consumers and customers receive the product offering and the value created 4. The determination phase. Companies determine whether or not what customers receive really fits their needs or not and it not, redesign the product until it does fit their needs, and provide the customer with real value (or the organisation goes out of business). This process is cyclical, because products usually begin with the determination phase. There is a feedback loop to determine whether this product suits customers’ needs. These processes are influenced and dependent upon society and are regulated by government. Marketing: Ancient or Brand New? Marketing as a coherent approach to business has been around since the early 1920s. 1. Production period, 1890s-1920s: focus on physical production and supply, where demand exceeded supply, there was little competition, and the range of products was limited. This phase took place after the industrial revolution. 2. Sales Period, 1920s-1950s: focus on personal selling supported by market research and advertising. This phase took place after WW1. . Marketing Period, 1950s-1980s: more advanced focus on customer needs. This phase took place after WW2. 4. Societal Marketing Period, 1980s-present: stronger focus on social and ethical concerns in marketing. Marketing as a discipline has developed through the influence of practitioners, and through developments in the areas of industrial economics, psychology, sociology, and anthropology, (see page 9 for theorists): * I ndustrial Economics Influences – our knowledge of matching supply with demand comes from the development of microeconomics. Psychological Influences – our knowledge of consumer behaviour comes principally from psychology, particularly motivational research in relation to consumer attitudes, perceptions, motivations, and information processing. * Sociological Influences – our knowledge of how groups of people behave comes mainly from sociology, with insights into areas, such as how people from similar gender and age groups behave. * Anthropological Influences – our debt to social anthropology increases more as we use qualitative market research approaches such as observation to research consumer behaviour. Differences between Sales and Marketing Selling: Product push Marketing: Product pull Marketing * Tends towards long term satisfaction of customer needs * Tends to greater input into customer design of offering (co-creation) * Tends to high focus on stimulation of demand Sales * Tends towards short-term satisfaction of customer needs. * Tends to lesser input into customer design of offering (co-creation) * Tends to low focus on stimulation of demand, more focused on meeting existing demand What do Marketers Do? . Provide marketing intelligence and customer insight 2. Provide strategic marketing direction for the organisation 3. Develop the customer proposition 4. Manage and provide marketing communications 5. Use and develop marketing and customer information 6. Lead marketing operations and programmes 7. Work with other business functions and 3rd parties 8. Manage and develop teams and individuals Marketers at different levels of organisation will undertake different components of t hese functions at different levels. Generally, senior marketer/marketing director will guide and direct these functions, while the marketing manager will manage them, the marketing executive will undertake the actions necessary to fulfil these functions, and the marketing assistant will support the marketing executive (CIM, 2OO5). The Marketing Mix and the 4 Ps There are some general concepts that help managers frame their actions as they develop their marketing plans and undertake marketing tactics. The marketing manager was a â€Å"mixer of ingredients†, a chef who concocted a unique marketing recipe to fit the requirements of the customers’ needs at any particular time. Eugene McCarthy (1960) simplified and amended the memorable 4ps from previous lists: 1. Product – the offering and how it meets the customers’ needs, packaging and labelling. 2. Place (distribution) – the way in which the product meets customers’ needs. 3. Price – the cost to the customer, and how the cost plus profit to the seller 4. Promotion – how the product’s benefits and features are conveyed to the potential buyer Extended Marketing Mix for Services: the 7Ps American scholars, Boom and Bitner (1981), incorporated a further 3Ps into the marketing mix: 5. Physical evidence – to emphasise that the tangible components of services were strategically important since customers used these to infer what the quality of the service might be e. g. students requesting brochures of different universities, to pick the course most suitable. 6. Process – because service delivery cannot be separated from the customer consumption process. Process is included because of the need to manage customer expectations, interaction and satisfaction. E. g. track and trace delivery services. 7. People – included to emphasise that services are delivered by customer service personnel, sometimes experts and often professionals who interact with the customer sometimes in an intimate manner (e. g. spa treatments). How they interact with customers, and how satisfied customers are as a result, is of strategic importance. Market Orientation * Marketing Orientation: a company that increases the importance of marketing within the organisation, e. g. by appointing a marketing person to its board of directors. * Market Orientation: doesn’t just involve marketing. Involves all aspect of the company, gathering and responding to market intelligence (i. e. customers’ verbalised needs and preferences, market research etc) Developing a market orientation means developing the following: * Customer orientation * Competitor orientation * Interfunctional orientation Organisations that manage to develop a market orientation are better at market sensing (understanding the strategic implications of the market for a particular organisation). Relationship Marketing Organisations must keep relationships with the parties exchanging value. 1. Suppliers 2. Potential employees . Recruiters 4. Referral markets – where they exist (banks rely on professional services i. e. estate agents for mortgage referrals) 5. Influence markets – e. g. government bodies for companies in the public sector 6. Internal markets – e. g. existing employees Relationship marketing concerns the integration of customer service and quality assurance. Customer re tention is more important to companies than customer acquisition. Research proves that retention is more profitable than acquisition: * Customers will increase their purchases over time * Customers cheaper to promote to Customers who are happy with their relationship with a company are happy to refer to others The Consumer Services Perspective Some commentators argue that products and services have significant differences and similarities: Services: * Cannot be protected by a patent * Do not make use of packaging * Lack a physical display * Cannot be demonstrated in the same way However there are major similarities, including the need to: * Work at full capacity * Develop trade and service marks * Use promotional media * Use personal selling techniques The five characteristics of service products Service industries are generally seen to have 5 important differentiating characteristics: 1. Intangibility – enhancing physical environment, producing brochures, leaflets, by obtaining service quality kite marks. 2. Inseparability – production and consumption are inseparable in service markets. There is a need to manage carefully relationships between clients and their customers, managing their expectations of the quality of the service that they receive. 3. Variability – the quality and standard of service products varies depending on the individual customer and the service provider. Can be difficult to monitor and control service production to ensure consistent service standards. 4. Perishability – services cannot be stored and consumed at a later date, unless they are recorded. Service-based businesses must maximise how much their facilities are used through yield management. E. g. offering discounts at specific times. 5. Non-ownership – customers cannot own the service they receive because ownership is not transferred from the seller to the buyer as it is with a tangible good. The Business to Business Perspective The emphasis in b2b markets is strongly focused on the development and building of mutually satisfying relationships based on commitment and trust, to win the contract in the first place. B2b marketers can create a competitive advantage if they develop a linkage between the marketing and logistics functions, developing a strong customer service proposition on the following items: * Reduction in order cycle times * Simple accurate invoicing procedures * Consistent and reliable delivery * Simple and effective claims procedures * Availability of inventory Good condition of goods and effective service delivery * Flexible delivery times * Strong after-sales support What Impact Marketing has on Society It is important to be critical of marketing. As beneficial as it can be, by providing wants and needs of customers and consumers, with higher technology, more ethical products, with it can also come by marketing bad products, such as alcohol. Cigarettes have been banned to be advertised, but it is important to recognise that not all companies market products for the greater good, but because they can make a profit. Chapter 2: The Marketing Environment . External Environment 2. Performance Environment 3. Internal Environment The external environment consists of the political, social, and technological influences, and organisations have relatively little influence on each of these things. The performance environment consists of the competitors, suppliers, and indirect service providers who shape the way an organisation achieves its objectives. Here, organisations have a much stronger level of influence. The internal environment concerns the resources, processes, and polices an organisation manages in order that it can attempt to achieve its goals. These elements can be influences directly by an organisation. Understanding the External Environment The Political Environment The political environment relates to the period of interaction between business, society, and government before those laws are enacted, when they are still being formed, or are in dispute. Political environment analysis is a critical phase in environment scanning because companies can then detect potential legal and regulatory changes in their industries and so they can have a chance to impede, influence, and alter that legislation. The Economic Environment Companies have to develop an understanding of the economic environment in which they operate and trade. The external environment of a firm is affected, but not exclusively, by the following items: * Wage Inflation * Price Inflation * Gross Domestic Product (per capita) – combined output of goods and services in a particular nation and is a useful measure for determining relative wealth between countries * Income, sales, and corporation taxes – taxes run at different levels all around the world, substantially affecting how we market goods and services * Exchange rates Export quota controls and duties All these factors can change the amount a company charges for its products and services. Companies need to understand how prices or labour costs change if we are importing goods and services, or even components, from another country. The difficulty comes in comparing prices from one country to another. Firms usually have little impact on the macroeconomic environment since t hey have little control over macroeconomic variables, e. g. oil prices, which might affect their business. The Socio-Cultural Environment Lifestyles are constantly changing and consumers are constantly shifting their preferences over time. Companies who fail to recognise this will ultimately fail. Companies must consider the nature of households, lifestyles and the family structure, and the changing values in society or in a consumer group as important variables in their scanning process. The Technological Environment The emergence of new technologies can substantially affect not only high-technology businesses but non-technology businesses as well. Examples include those aspects of technology which impact upon productivity and efficiency. New technology is increasingly changing the way that companies go to market through moves towards more email and web-based marketing. The difficulty for most firms is how to determine whether or not to invest in radical new technologies, since the potential benefits are far from clear at the outset. The Legal Environment The legal environment covers every aspect of an organisation’s business. Laws and regulation are enacted in most countries ranging from the transparency of pricing, minimum wages, business taxes, product safety, packaging and labelling, the abuse of a dominant market position. All of these come under the umbrella of the legal environment. The Ecological Environment Concept of sustainability in marketing and corporate (social) responsibility. Increasingly, customers are being worried about the impact of companies on their ecological environments. Consumers are equally concerned with ensuring that products are not sourced from countries with poor and coercive labour policies. Orsato (2006) suggested that a company should adopt one of the following four different green marketing strategies: 1. Eco-efficiency – developing lower costs through resource productivity (e. . energy efficiency). This approach should be adopted by companies which need to focus on reducing the cost and environmental impact of their processes. 2. Beyond compliance leadership – the adoption of a differentiation strategy through organisational processes such as certified schemes to demonstrate their ecological credentials. This approach should be adopted by firms which suppl y industrial markets, such as car manufacturers. 3. Eco-branding – the differentiation of a firm’s products or services to promote environmental responsibility. For example, BP – formerly British petroleum – who changed their logo to make it green and yellow in a flower petal and sun synthesis, which they call the Helios, and slogan to â€Å"beyond petroleum† to reflect their intended shift in meeting the world’s energy requirements to more sustainable sources. 4. Environmental cost leadership – the offering of products and services which give greater environmental benefits at a lower price. This strategy suits firms operating in price-sensitive ecologically sensitive markets, such as the packaging and chemical industries. Chapter 3: Marketing Psychology and Consumer Buying Behaviour Diffusion Process Consumers purchase products at different times in the product life cycle. 1. Innovators: kick starts adoption process 2. Early Adopters: speeds up adoption process. Opinion leaders. 3. Early Majority: more risk averse than other 2 groups. This group requires reassurance. 4. Late Majority: sceptical of new ideas. Only adopt products due to social/economic factors. 5. Laggards: opinions hard to change. Small majority. Lowest income and social status. Suspicious of new ideas Innovators: 2. 5% of population Early adopters: 13. 5% of population Early majority: 34% of population Late majority: 34% of population Laggards: 16% of population It is likely that a promotional campaign should only be targeted at innovators and the early majority. Word of mouth and reputation will get round to the late majority and laggards. People are classified into these groups, but the type of people in the groups can swap and change depending on the type of product. Consumer Product Acquisition Motive Development Information Gathering Product Evaluation Product Selection Acquisition Re-evaluation Motive Development: the model begins when we decide we need to acquire a product. This involves initial recognition that some sort of problem needs solving, i. . need a new dress Information Gathering: the next stage requires us to look for alternative ways of solving our problem. We are open to ways of solving our problem, i. e. looking online Product Evaluation: once we feel we have all the information that we need to make a decision, we evaluate the products, i. e. choose between 2 dresses Product Selection: the pr oduct we eventually select is the one that we evaluate as fitting our needs best beforehand. This is a separate stage because there are times when we must re-evaluate, because what we want may not be right, or not available, i. . pick best dress Acquisition: once selection has taken place, different approaches to product acquisition might exist. It is important for the marketers to ensure that their customer value the product that they receive, i. e. buy online, with chance to return within 14 days, free delivery etc. Re-evaluation: the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) suggests that we are motivated to re-evaluate our beliefs, attitudes and opinions. To reduce dissonance, we might: * Selectively forget information * Minimize the importance of an issue, decision or act Selectively expose ourselves to information which agrees with our existing view * Reverse a purchase decision (take product pack) Perceptions Consumer understanding very much depends on how effectively the message is both transmitted and perceived. In any one day, consumers receive thousands of messages. AMA, 2007: Based on prior attitudes, beliefs, needs, stimulus factors, and situational determinant, individuals perceive objects, events of people in the world about the. Perception is the cognitive impression that is formed of â€Å"reality† which in turn influences the individual’s actions and behaviour toward that object. The process of screening such meaningful information from the non-meaningful is known as selective exposure (Dubois, 2000). The implication for marketers is the importance of determining what media your customers use, and which they ignore. Perceptual mapping is a useful tool to determine how consumers perceive competing products and services, by comparing labels, brands and products, by rating those using semantic differential questions. Learning Consumers are continually learning about new product characteristics, their performance and new trends. Learning is the process by which we acquire new knowledge and skills, attitudes and values, through the mediums of study, experience, or modelling others’ behaviour. There are numerous theories of human learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical Conditioning: Ian Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurs, because we learn by associating one thing with another, in Pavlov’s case, the sound of the bell and arrival of food made the dogs salivate, so eventually, just by the sound of the bell, the dogs assumed that food would arrive. Operant Conditioning: Skinner (1954) argued that learning was the result of operant conditioning, which is learnt through behaviour reinforcement, through punishment or reward. Social Learning: Bandura (1977) suggested humans are much more thoughtful and less animalistic than the Skinnerian behaviourist school of learning suggested. Also contrasting to operant conditioning, Bandura argued that we can delay gratification and dispense our own rewards our punishment. In other words, we have more choice over how we react to stimuli than Skinner proposed. We can reflect on our own actions and change our future behaviour. In social learning, we learn by observing the behaviour of others. Memory Knowledge develops with familiarity, repetition of marketing messages, and consumers acquisition of product/service information. According to Bettman (1979) our memories are highly complex, there are a variety of memorisation processes which affect consumer choice, some of which include the following: 1. Recognition and recall – less frequently used words in advertising are recognised more. The more unique a campaign’s message, the better it is recognised, but the worse it is recalled. 2. Effects of context – memorisation is strongly associated with the context of the stimulus, and while information may be available in memory it will be inaccessible in the wrong context. 3. Form of coding and storage of objects in memory – subjects may store information in the form it is presented to them, either by object (brand) or dimension (product/service attribute). 4. Effect of processing load – this concept operates from a capacity allocation theory of memory suggesting that we are likely to find it more difficult to process information into our short and long term memories when we are presented with a great deal of info at once. . Effects of input mode – short term recall of auditory input (i. e. sound) is stronger than the short term recall of visual input (sight) where the 2 compete for the consumers attention. 6. Effects of repetition – recall and recognition of marketing messages increase the more times a consumer is exposed to them alth ough there are decreasing increments in memory performance and repetition increases. Personality How and what we buy is also based on our personalities. Personality: the aspect of our psyche that determines the way in which we respond to our environment in a relatively stable way over time. 3 main approaches: . Psychoanalytic approach – stresses self-reported unconscious desires 2. Trait theory – stresses classification of personality types 3. Self concept approach – concerned with how we perceive ourselves as consumers. Psychoanalytic Approach Freud (1927) stated that someone’s personality is determined by their sexual development through the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages. An adult’s personality is developed according to how well they cope with crises that occur during these 5 phases. ID – instinctual drives and urges Ego – attempts to find outlets for the urges in our id and acts as a planning centre. Moderated by superego. Superego – controls how we motivate ourselves to behave to responds to our instincts and urges, so that we do in a socially acceptable manner, and avoid any feelings of guilt or shame. Social conscience. Trait Approach This approach categorises people into different personality types. There are 20 needs. E. g. autonomy, aggression, and achievement. Maslow (1943) suggested a hierarchical order of human needs: Self-actualisation Needs The need to fulfil our potential Esteem Needs Valued and respected by self and others Belongingness Needs Affection, attachment, friendship Safety Needs A predictable non-threatening environment Physiological Needs Food, water, oxygen, sex, and shelter from the elements The importance of each level ranges from country to country, as some needs are more readily available than others. Chapter 4: Marketing Research and Marketing Information Systems Marketing research is used to obtain information that provides the management of a company with sufficient insight to make more informed decisions on future activities. For a business to be successful, an organisation must understand the motivations, desires and behaviour of its customers and consumers. Marketing research specifies the information required to address certain issues; design methods for manage and implement the data collection process; analyse the results and communicate the findings and their implications. (ESOMAR 1995) Even though marketing research is the foundational element of modern marketing practice, market research is valued by some companies more than others. Commissioning Marketing Research Conducting market research depends largely on the size of the company and the type of product or service being sold. Some large companies employ market research agencies to conduct their research for them. The main advantage of using agencies is that it is relatively cheap compared with undertaking the research in-house and collecting the data independently. The main disadvantages of using agencies are that the agency sometimes cannot achieve the depth of knowledge of the client’s problems or market unless it offers a niche specialism in this area. In many syndicated surveys, (retail audits etc) several rival organisations buy the same data from the agency, so a cost effective survey can be carried out. However the survey could be less specific to each business. The Marketing Research Brief Typical contents might include the following: * Background summary – brief info and details about the company and its products it offers * Management problem – clear statement of why the research should be undertaken and which business decisions are dependent upon its outcome * The marketing research questions – a detailed list of the information necessary in order to make the decisions outlined above * The intended scope of the research – the areas to be covered, which industries, type of consumer etc. Should be provided. Should give an indication of when the info is required and why that date is important * Tendering procedures – the client organisation should outline how agencies are to be selected as a result of the tendering process. Specific info may be required such as CVs from agency personnel to be involved in the study, and referee contact address The Marketing Research Process Stage 1 – define the problem Stage 2 – decide the research plan Stage 3 – undertake the data collection Stage 4 – undertake the data analysis/interpretation Stage 5 – write the report and deliver the presentation See book for detailed descriptions, page 144 Competitive Intelligence and Marketing In formation Systems It’s no good having lots of data unless you know how to use it. Companies are frequently swimming in data but have no means to convert the data into intelligence or no means to store it and provide it to end users. Competitive Intelligence – the organised, professional approach to collection, analysis, and distribution of timely, accurate and useful information as intelligence products – intelligence that contributes materially to the achievement of strategic and tactical business objectives (Nolan, 1999). There are various techniques used which include: * Use remote psychological assessment tools to build profiles of business opponents * Collecting competitive intelligence at conferences and trade shows * Collecting information on rivals from their customers and suppliers using elicitation techniques * Collecting intelligence on rivals from 3rd parties using elicitation techniques Marketing Research and Ethics Many supermarkets adopt loyalty cards. The major value of such schemes is the provision of consumption information. This data is analysed by a 3rd party, and sold to the company. Since marketing research is based on the cooperation of the individuals or organisations that provide the answers or fill in the questionnaires, marketing research should be carried out in an objective, unobtrusive, and honest manner. Researchers have been particularly concerned about the public’s increased unwillingness to take part in market research. Marketing research should neither attempt to induce sales of a product or service, nor influence customer attitudes, or intentions of behaviours. The general public and other parties are entitled to assurances that no information collected in a research survey will be used to identify them, or disclosed to a 3rd party without their consent. In conducting any marketing research, researchers have responsibility for themselves, their clients and the respondents from whom the information is being gathered. International Marketing Research Marketing researchers need to understand how culture operates in international markets and how this impacts upon research design. More variables need to be considered. Difficult to decide whether to use the same sampling frame, or study using different scales, sampling methods and sizing. The key issue faced by international researchers is to ensure comparable data are collected, despite differences in sampling frames, technological development and availability of interviewers. Conceptual Equivalence – when interpretation of behaviour or objects, is similar across countries. Functional Equivalence – a concept has similar functions in different countries Translation Equivalence – words in some languages have no real equivalent in other languages The International Marketing Survey Research Process . The project is discussed at length with the client 2. The fieldwork agencies for each country are selected 3. The questionnaire is developed centrally 4. The questionnaire is translated locally and the translation is checked centrally 5. The questionnaire is piloted locally 6. The questionnaire is finalised centrally 7. The interviewe rs are briefed locally by an executive of the central company 8. A coding and editing plan is provided for the local agencies 9. The edited and coded questionnaires are returned to the head office 10. A coding and editing check is carried out centrally 11. Data processing is carried out centrally Chapter 6 : Market Segmentation and Positioning The STP Process The method by which whole markets are subdivided into different segments is referred to as the STP process. STP refers to the 3 activities that should be undertaken. These are: 1. Segmentation 2. Targeting 3. Positioning Marketers are increasingly segmenting markets and indentifying attractive segments in order to identify new product opportunities, develop suitable positioning, and communicate strategies (i. . what message to communicate), and effectively allocate resources to key marketing activities (i. e. how much should we spend and where? ). Organisations operating in highly dynamic environments seek to conduct segmentation research at regular intervals to keep in touch with changes in the marketplace. Key benefits of STP process include: * Enhancing a company’s competitive position by providing direction and foc us for marketing strategies – such as targeted advertising, new product development and brand differentiation. Examining and identifying growth opportunities in the market through the identification of new customers, growth segments, or new product uses. * More effective and efficient matching of company resources to targeted market segments promises the greatest return on marketing investment. The Concept of Market Segmentation Market segmentation is the division of a market into different groups of customers with distinctly similar needs and product/service requirements. The purpose of market segmentation is to leverage scarce resources, to ensure that the elements of the marketing mix are designed to meet particular needs of different customer groups. With an increasing proliferation of tastes in modern society, consumers have increased in disposable incomes. As a result, marketers have sought to design product and service offerings around the consumer demand (market segmentation) more than around their own production needs (product differentiation) The process of Market Segmentation There are 2 main approaches to segmenting markets. 1. Breakdown Method – this adopts the view that the market is considered to consist of customers which are essentially the same, so the task is to identify groups which share particular differences. 2. Build-up Method – considers a market to consist of customers that are all different, so here the task is to find similarities. The breakdown approach is perhaps the most established and well recognized and is the main method used for segmenting consumer markets. The build up approach seeks to move from the individual level where all customers are different, to a more general level of analysis based on the identification of similarities. The aim of both methods is to identify segments in the market where identifiable differences exist between members within each segment (member homogeneity) The segmentation process varies according to the prevailing conditions in the marketplace and the changing needs of the parties involved, not simply the needs of the selling organisation. Market Segmentation in Consumer Markets To segment the consumer goods and service markets, we use market information we have collected based on certain key customer/product/situation related criteria (variables). These are classified as segmentation bases, they include profile, behavioural, and psychological criteria. The 4th segmentation criteria is contact data. The population can be segmented and analysed through various ways: * Demographics * Lifecycle * Geographics * Geodemographics * Psychographics * Behavioural criteria Transaction and purchase: the development of electronic technologies has facilitated the rapid growth in the collection of consumer purchase and transactional data, providing an additional consumer characteristic upon which to base market segmentation. Segmentation in Business Markets There are 2 main groups of interrelated variables used to segment business-to-business markets: 1. Organisational characteristics: organisational size/location/industry type (SIC codes). 2. Buyer characteristics: Decision-making unit structure/choice criteria/purchase situation. Organisational size: by segmenting organisations by size, it is possible to identify particular buying requirements. Geographic location: particularly useful since it allows sales territories to be drawn up around particular locations which salespersons can easily service. SIC codes: Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes are often used to get an indication of the size of a particular market. Easily accessible and standardised across most western countries. Decision-making unit: a decision making unit may have specific requirements that influence their purchase decisions in a particular market, i. e. policies, purchasing strategies, attitudes towards vendors and towards risk. Choice criteria: business markets can be segmented on the basis of the specifications of product/service that they choose. Purchase Situation: there are 3 factors associated with the purchase situation. 1. The structure of the buying organisation’s purchasing procedures (centralised, flexible etc). 2. What type of buying situation is present (new task, modified re buy, straight re buy) 3. What stage in the purchase decision process have target organisations reached? Target Markets It is important to determine which, if any, of the segments uncovered should be targeted and made the focus of a comprehensive marketing programme. It needs to be judged which markets are selected and exploited, and which markets are ignored. Kotler (1984) suggested that for market segmentation to be effective, all segments must be: * Distinct Accessible * Measurable * Profitable Targeting Approaches Once identified the company needs to select its approach to target marketing it is going to adopt. Four differing approaches can be considered: 1. Undifferentiated marketing e. g. UK post office, targets mass market. 2. Differentiated marketing e. g. Levi’s, targets multiple market segments. 3. Focu sed/concentrated marketing e. g. Jordan cereal targets consumers interested in organic. 4. Customised marketing: B2B markets (e. g. marketing research or advertising services) Market Segmentation: Some Limitations The process involves approximating product/service offering to the needs of customer groups, rather than providing an individual customised offering, there is a chance that our customers’ needs are not being fully met. * There is insufficient consideration of how market segmentation is linked to competitive advantage. Market segmentation has not tended to stress the need to segment on the basis of differentiating from competitors. * It is unclear how valuable segmentation is to the manager. Suitable processes and models to indicate how to measure the effectiveness of market segmentation processes are not yet available. Process issues – lack of experience, guidance and expertise concerning the way in which segmentation is undertaken and managed. Positioning Ha ving segmented the market, determined the size and potential of market segments, and selected specific target markets, the 3rd part of the STP process is to position a brand within the target market. Positioning is important because it is the means by which goods and services can be differentiated from one another and so give consumers a reason to buy. It’s about how customers judge a product’s value relative to competitors and its ability to deliver against the promises made. . Physical attributes – functionality and capability that a brand offers. 2. Communication – the way the brand is communicated and how consumers perceive the brand relative to other competing brands in the marketplace. Perceptual Mapping Perceptual mapping represents a geometric comparison of how competing products are perceived. The further apart the positions, the greater the opportunity for new brands to enter the market, because competition is less intense. Repositioning Strateg ies Markets, consumer tastes, fashions and competitors change. There are four main ways to approach repositioning a product. . Change the tangible attributes and then communicate the new product to the same market. 2. Change the way a product is communicated to the original market. 3. Change the target market and deliver the same product 4. Change both the product attributes and the target market. Chapter 9: Products, Services, and Branding Decisions The 3 levels of a product: 1. The core product – consists of the real core benefit or service. May be a functional benefit in terms of what the product will enable you to do, or an emotional benefit in terms of how it will make you feel. E. g. cars provide transportation and a means of self-expression. 2. The embodied product – consists of the physical good or delivered service that provides the expected benefit. E. g. features, durability, design, packaging, brand name etc. 3. The augmented product – consists of the embodied product plus all other factors necessary to support the purchase. E. g. credit and finance, training, delivery, installation, guarantees. Consumer Products Durable goods: can be used repeatedly and provide benefits each time they are used e. g. ike, Ipod Non-durable goods: limited duration, often only capable of being used once e. g. yoghurt, newspaper Convenience products can be sub-divided into 3 categories: 1. Stable products: bread, milk, petrol 2. Impulse products: chewing gum, chocolate, magazines 3. Emergency products: bandages, umbrella, plumber in the middle of the night when there’s a leak. Unsought products refers to a group of products which people do not normall y anticipate buying or want to buy. For example, insurance sold on the streets, double glazing, and timeshare holiday (mainly products pushed to buy from salespeople). Business Products There are 6 main categories identified according to how organisational customers (business people) use them: 1. Equipment goods 2. Raw materials 3. Semi-finished goods 4. Maintenance repair and operating goods 5. Component parts 6. Business services Product Lifecycles Product lifecycle is the belief that products move through a sequential, predetermined pattern of development. It consists of 5 distinct stages: 1. Development 2. Introduction 3. Growth 4. Maturity 5. Decline Speed of movement through the stages will vary but each product has a limited lifespan. The lifespan can be prolonged and extended, but the majority of products have a finite period. It does not apply to all products in the same way. E. g. some products reach the end of the introduction stage and then die as it becomes clear there is no market to sustain the product. Some products get to decline, and then get recycled back to growth stage by repositioning activities. Usefulness of Product Life Cycle The plc (product life cycle) concept allows marketing managers to adapt strategies and tactics to meet the needs of evolving conditions and product circumstances. It is a well known and popular concept and is a useful means of explaining the path a product or brand has taken. Clear, simple and predictable. However, in practice the PLC is not great use. Difficult to tell when the product has hit each stage in the cycle. Historical sales data does not help managers identify when a product has moved from one stage to another, so it is difficult to forecast sales and determine the future shape of the PLC curve. Great care is required when using the PLC. Idea Generation Idea Generation Screening Business Plans and Market Analysis Product Development and Selection Test Marketing Commercialisation The Process of Adoption The process through which individuals accept and use new products is referred to as the process of adoption (Rogers 1983). The process starts with people gaining awareness of a product and moves through various stages of adaptation before a purchase is eventually made. 1. Knowledge 2. Persuasion 3. Decision 4. Implementation 5. Confirmation Branding Branding is a method through which manufacturers and retailers help customers to differentiate between the various offerings in a market. It enables them to make associations with certain attributes or feelings with a particular brand. Brands are products and services that have added value. This value has been deliberately designed and presented by marketing managers in an attempt to augment their products with values and association that are recognised by and are meaningful to customers. It is customer perception and the brand’s value which is important. AMA definition: a name, term, sign, symbol, design or a combination, intended to identify the goods, or services of one seller or group of sellers, and to differentiate them from those of competitors (2006). There are 2 main types of attributes: 1. Intrinsic – functional characteristics of a product, such as shape, performance etc. 2. Extrinsic – brand name, price, packaging, marketing communications etc. Benefits of branding for consumers: * Assists people to identify their preferred products * Reduces level of perceived risk * Help people gauge the level of product quality * Reduces amount of time spent making product based decisions, decreases shop time. * Provide psychological reassurance or reward, especially for products bought on an occasional basis (e. g. esigner handbag) * Inform consumers about the source of a product (country or company) Benefits of branding for manufacturers and retailers: * Enable premium pricing * Help differentiate the product from competitive offerings * Encourage cross-selling to other brands owned by the manufacturer * Develop customer loyalty/retention and repeat purchase buyer behaviour * Assist the development and use of integrated mark eting communications * Contribute to corporate identity programmes * Provide some legal protection Types of Brands * Manufacturer brands: Persil, Heinz, coca-cola, Cadbury. Promoted heavily. Distributor (own label) brands: Argos, Harvey Nichols, Sainsburys. Sell manufactured and own label. * Generic brands: plain flour. Packaging only displays info required by law. Sold at prices substantially below normal price. Only firms in pharmaceutical sector use this type of brand now, as popularity elsewhere has declined. Brand Policies Individual branding: requires that each product offered by an organisation is branded independently of all the others. E. g. Unilever uses individual branding with Cif, Knorr and Dove. Advantages: * Easy to target specific segments and to enter new markets with separate names. If a brand fails or becomes subject to negative media attention, other brands are not likely to be damaged. Disadvantages * Heavy financial cost as each brand needs to have its own prom otional programme and associated support. Family branding: requires that all the products use the organisations name, either entirely or in part. E. g. Microsoft, Heinz, and Kellogg’s. Advantages: * It is hoped that customer trust will develop across all brands. * Promotional investment need not be as high as there will be a halo effect across all the brands when one is communicated. Disadvantages: * Damage to one product or operational area can cause problems across the organisation. Corporate branding: Single umbrella brand, based on the name of the organisation. Used by major supermarkets, business markets, and financial services. Advantages: * Promotional investments are limited to one brand. Disadvantages: * The risk is similar to family branding where damage to one product or operational area can cause problems across the organisation. Co-branding is where two established brands work together, either on one product or service. Brand Equity is a measure of the value of a brand. It is an assessment of a brand’s wealth, sometimes referred to as goodwill. Brand equity is considered important because of the increasing interest in trying to measure the return on promotional investments and pressure by various stakeholders to value brands for balance sheet purposes. A brand with strong equity is more likely to be able to preserve its customer loyalty and so fend off competitor attacks. There are 3 parts associated with brand equity: 1. Brand value, based on a financial and accounting base 2. Brand strength, measuring the strength of a consumer’s attachment to a brand 3. Brand description, represented by the specific attitudes customers have towards a brand Packaging There is a societal and political pressure to ensure that packaging and the materials used are appropriate and capable of being recycled. Packaging has 2 main roles to be, functional and communicative. * Protection * Preserved * Convenience * Clear messages about content, features, and dangers * Good design (complement physical attributes) * Brand identification and reassurance * Layout Labelling Labels are important. Deliver information about product usage * Help promote a brand * Enable brand owners to comply with various regulations and requirements * Good design Chapter 10: Price Decisions Price: the amount of money expected, required, or given in payment for something Price: something expended or endured in order to achieve an object In marketing terms, we consider price as the amount the customer has to pay or exchange to receive a good or service. Customer Perceptions of Pricing, Quality and Value Quality is defined as the standard of something as measured against other things of a similar kind. Consumers have differing views of the quality of the product they have purchased. Value is defined as the regard that something is held to deserve importance of worth. In marketing terms, perceived value refers to what we get for what we pay. Value = Quality/Price Although products might be perceived as expensive, they can still be perceived as value for money (e. g. Panadol is an expensive drug, but is more effective than own-label aspirin) Reference Prices: when customers have some idea of what they think is a fair price to pay for a certain good or service, or what they would expect to pay. When customers assess prices, they estimate value using pricing cues, because they do not always know the true cost and price of the item that they are purchasing. Odd Number Pricing: also known as psychological pricing. ?1. 99, we think is a lot cheaper than it is. Purchase Context in Pricing: starting off with cheaper prices before adding in extras (easy jet), or gym memberships with a small monthly fee but with a yearly contract. Consumers are drawn in more if they initially see a low price. Price Bundling: bundling other products together, e. g. magazines with free CD’s or DVD’s. This is pure price bundling. Mixed price bundling is when different products can be bundled together through choice, such as mobile phone packages with international call packages, SMS packages, and email, which can also be available independently or with other offers. Price bundles can also include â€Å"cash back† not just offering products. For example banks offer cash back schemes on money spent and inputted in their banks (Halifax pay ? 5 every month is ? 1000 is put into a current account). Pricing Approaches The setting of prices depends on a number of factors, such as demand, sales revenue, costs etc. There are 4 types of pricing approaches which can be used: 1. Cost-oriented approach (prices are set based on costs) 2. Demand –oriented approach (prices are based on price sensitivity and levels of demand) 3. Competitor-oriented approach (where prices are set based on what competitors charge) 4. Value-oriented approach (prices are set based on what customers believe to offer value) Pricing Policies Although there are 4 main types of pricing approaches, there are in fact many different possible pricing policies which could be used: 1. List pricing: unsophisticated approach to pricing. A single price is set for a product or service. 2. Loss leader pricing: the price of a product is set at a lower level than actual cost to product it. This entices customers into stores, and the loss incurred on these items is made up by increasing costs elsewhere on less price-sensitive items. 3. Promotional pricing: when companies temporarily reduce their prices below the standard price for a period of time to raise awareness of the product, to raise brand awareness in the short term. 4. Segmentation pricing: where varying prices are set for different groups of customers, e. g. tesco finest, tesco value, George asda, etc. Economists call this price discrimination. 5. Price skimming: the start of a product’s life cycle, a product is charged a lot higher, to recoup the costs of research and development, and to make the product â€Å"exclusive†. 6. Price penetration: the start of a product’s life cycle, a product is charged a lot lower, to gain market share and generate a large volume of sales to recoup research and development investment. Pricing in the B2B Setting B2B markets exist on the basis that firms sell products and services to one another rather than to end users. From the B2B seller’s perspective, there re numerous approaches to pricing products and services including the following: * Geographical pricing – where customers are located * Negotiated pricing – set according to specific agreements between company and client * Discount pricing – reduce prices on the basis that customer is prepared to bulk buy * Value-in-use pricing – price foc uses attention upon customer perceptions, what they expect to pay * Relationship pricing – understanding of customer’s needs, helps generate relationship * Transfer pricing – large organisations, internal dealing between different divisions of the company and across national boundaries. Economic value to customer – works on basis that a company prices a good according to its value to the client through comparison with a reference or market leading product, taking everything into consideration (start-up and post-purchase costs) Price Elasticity of Demand It allows us to determine how the quantity of a good or service relates to the price at which it is offered. Inelastic goods and services are defined as such, because a change in price has little effect in sales volumes, whereas elastic goods have large effects. We need to understand this concept in order to understand demand-orientated pricing mechanisms. Chapter 11: An Introduction to Marketing Communications Marketing communications or promotion is one of the 4ps of the marketing mix. It is used to communicate elements of an organisation’s offering to a target audience. Communication is the process by which individuals share meaning. There are 3 main models or interpretations, of how communication works. 1. Linear model 2. Two-way model 3. Interactive model Linear Model of Communication – page 434 Regarded as the basic model of mass communications. First developed by Wilbur Schramm (1955). The linear model emphasises that each phase occurs in a particular sequence, to enable to transmission of information, ideas, attitudes and emotion from one person or group to another. The goal is to create a message that is capable of being comprehended easily by the receiver. once encoded, the message must be put in a form that is capable of transmission. Once the receiver has received the message, they decode it, to make sense of it. Once understood, receivers react and provide a response, with feedback. The final component is understanding. The source and receiver understand each other. Increasing numbers of people now engage with interactive based communications, so companies and individuals cannot be involved in real dialogue. The linear model therefore is no longer entirely appropriate. The Two-Step Model of Communication People can have a significant impact on the communication process, and the two-step model goes some way to reflecting their influence. It recognises the importance of personal influences when informing and persuading audiences to think or behave in particular ways. There are 2 main types of influencer: * Opinion leader – ordinary person who has a heightened interest in a particular topic. * Opinion former – involved professionally in the topic of interest. These both have enormous potential to influence audiences. Messages from personal influencers provide reinforcement and message credibility. The Interaction Model of Communications Model is similar to two-step model but contains one important difference. Mass media is not the only source of communication. Interaction model recognises that messages can flow through various channels and that people can influence the direction and impact of a message. Interaction is about actions that lead to a response and much attention is now given to the interaction that occurs between people. The development of digital technologies has been instrumental in enabling organisations to provide increased interaction opportunities with their customers. (e. g. press the red button to get more info). News programmes now encourage viewers to phone or send in their emails and pictures about particular issues. This gets audiences to express their views and in doing so, promoting access to, and interacting with the programme. The Role of Marketing Communications The success of marketing communications depends upon the extent to which messages engage their audiences. These audiences can fall into 3 groups: * Customers * Channel members – suppliers, retailers, wholesalers, value added resellers * Stakeholders – shareholders, employees, local community There are many types of exchange, but 2 of particular importance: 1. Transactional Exchanges: transactions that occur independently of any previous exchanges. Short term orientation. When a consumer buys an mp3 player, a brand they have not bought from before, then a transactional exchange can be identified. . Collaborative Exchanges: longer term orientation. Develops between parties who wish to build long-term supportive relationships. When a consumer buys their 3rd product from the same brand as the mp3 player, perhaps from the same dealer, collaborative exchanges are taking place. Audiences who prefer transactional exchanges will engage better with advertising and mass media-base d communications, as messages are impersonal and product focused. Companies by adding extra touches, can convert a shopping experience from transactional to collaborative, by putting in extra effort to maintain relationships. The Tasks of Marketing Communications There are 3 main aspects associated with marketing communications: 1. Engagement 2. Audience 3. Responses Communications can be used to differentiate brands and companies, to reinforce brand memories and expectations, to inform (make aware and educate audiences), and finally to persuade them to do things or to behave in particular ways. The Marketing Communications Mix The traditional marketing communications mix consists of a set of 5 primary tools: 1. Advertising 2. Sales promotion 3. Direct marketing 4. Public relations 5. Personal selling These 5 primary tools are used in various combinations and with different degrees of intensity in order to achieve different communication goals with target audiences. Word-of-mouth Word-of-mouth communication is â€Å"interpersonal communication regarding products or services where the receiver regards the communicator as impartial†. Integrated Marketing Communications IMC is concerned with harmonising the messages conveyed through each of the promotional tools, so that audiences perceive a consistent set of meanings within the messages they receive. Cultural Aspects of Marketing Communications Culture is important because it provides individuals within a society with a sense of identity and an understanding of what is deemed to be acceptable behaviour. Within businesses various types of culture arises: * National culture * Industry/Business culture * Organisational culture * Individual behaviour Corporate Concentration – a few large organisations own more and more media properties. Chapter 12: Marketing Communications: Tools and Techniques The marketing communications mix is a set of 5 tools that can be used in various combinations to communicate with target audiences: 1. Advertising 2. Sales promotion 3. Public relations 4. Direct marketing 5. Personal selling There are 6 key classes of media: 1. Broadcast 2. Print 3. Outdoor 4. In-store 5. Digital 6. Other (which includes both cinema and ambient media) The Role and Purpose of the Marketing Communications Mix Media fragmentation: the expansion of media where different classes of media have recently been used in different ways and developed. Advertising Advertising is a non-personal form of communication. It reaches large, mass audiences in an impersonal way. * Can be used to influence demand for products Can be used to manage perceptions and understanding about the organisation as a whole. Strong theory of advertisement – Jones (1991) Weak theory of advertisement – Ehrenberg (1997) Other Promotional Methods and Approaches * Sponsorships * Product placement * Branded entertainment * Field marketing * Exhibitions * Viral marketing Chapter 13: Managing Communications: Strategy, Planning, a nd Implementation There are 3 core marketing communication strategies, each based on broad target audiences: * Pull strategies – used to communicate with end user customers. Consumers and organisations within a B2B context. * Push strategies –